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ECLECTIC ED UCA 'FIONA L SER lES 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH 



A PREPARATION FOR THE STUDY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE 



KJ 
V 



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M'. W. SMITH, A.M. 

AvJthor of " Studies in English Literature," and teacher of English Literature 
in Hughes High School, Cincinnati 



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,APR 11 1888 --^ ^ 



VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG, AND COMPANY 

CINCINNATI AND NEW YORK 






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COPYRIGHT, 1555, BY VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO. 



dcledic WttBS 



PREFACE. 



The author has always been hampered in his preparatory work 
in English by not having a text-book including the details of some 
subjects that are essential to the study of the literature of the lan- 
guage. Although Grammar and formal Rhetoric have received a 
great deal of attention from good English scholars, yet the subjects 
referred to have either been neglected, or so elaborated as to place 
them far beyond the courses of study in our elementary schools. 
This has resulted in leaving too many things for the pupil to take 
for granted, or forcing him too hurriedly over ground with which 
he should be made familiar. He learns little of the composite 
character of the language ; he has a vocabulary that is often too 
limited to enable him to study satisfactorily ; he knows nothing of 
the forms of English verse ; he is not always certain in his knowl- 
edge of sentence-structure; he often fails completely in using 
synonyms ; and he is ignorant of variety of arrangement, diction, 
rhetorical figures, and the simplest elements of criticism. 

Some familiarity with the composition of the English language 
is a great help in making comparisons, in determining the predom- 
inance of English or Latin, and in finding the percentage of words 
of any one language that belong to the vocabulary of an author. 

A good vocabulary is the most important acquisition that a pupil 
can make. The larger it becomes, the wider grows the power of 
comprehension and expression. 

Many poets have devoted much time to the mechanical structure 
of their verses. To appreciate the work of such poets fully, it is 
necessary to know how they gave their poems the forms in which 
they are published, and to determine the suitableness or unsuitable- 
ness of these forms to the sentiments expresseci. Besides, Prosody 
is very important in fixing correct pronunciation. 

A great deal of the work done with the English sentence in 
Grammar and Rhetoric has been to discover errors. The teaching 
of correct English has, therefore, been negative in character. 

(iii) 



IV PREFACE. 

In order to comprehend thoroughly what an author says, and to 
understand the character of his genius, a knowledge of the most 
familiar rhetorical figures is indispensable. Even the familiar 
aphorisms that we use continually are entirely figurative. 

Of all the topics pertaining to the teaching of English Litera- 
ture, the most vague and unsatisfactory is that of criticism. The 
popular idea, fostered perhaps by the negative teaching of Gram- 
mar and Rhetoric, is that of finding fault. Criticism, properly 
speaking, presupposes a good knowledge of the language, and 
what can be done with it by an author. That which is worthy of 
praise should be sought after with as much zeal as that which is 
worthy of blame. 

The object in writing this book, therefore, has been to put into 
as elementary a form as possible those materials that will facilitate 
the advanced study of the English language. The plan is simple. 
It includes three elements : (i) the word; (2) the sentence ; (3) the 
thought. The composition of the language can be learned, and a 
largely increased vocabulary acquired by a careful study of the first 
element ; accuracy and variety of expression can be secured by the 
second ; a knowledge of the elements of criticism by the third. 

The intention of the author has been to adapt the subjects 
treated to the work done in a majority of our elementary schools. 
The first four chapters can be used profitably in the upper classes 
of district or grammar schools. Some may be able to introduce the 
fifth chapter. The sixth chapter belongs properly to high school 
work. 

As it was necessary to fix upon some works as accepted authority 
on words, for Chapters I. and II. especially, Skeat's "Etymological 
Dictionary" and Morris's "Historical Outlines of English Acci- 
dence" were adopted. The glossary of Norman French words 
was first taken from Morris and then verified by consulting Skeat. 

In Chapter II. a few root-words of not much prominence had to 
be selected in order to secure illustrations for some of the prefixes 
and suffixes. 

The suggestive questions are designed to be merely suggestive. 
The enterprising teacher can easily increase the number sufficiently 
to occupy all the time he can give to the study. 

Bond Hill, Ohio, Aprils 1888. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

History of the English Language. 

PAGE 

The Celts — the Romans ...... 9 

The Anglo-Saxons 10 

The Danes — the Normans Ii 

The Latin ......... 13 

Comparison of English — Latin with English— French 

words 14 

Changes in Orthography and Grammar ... 14 

Results upon Anglo-Saxon — Suggestive Questions . 16 

Words from Various Languages . . . . 18 
What words are generally English and what Norman 

French 25 

Comparisons of English and Norman French Words 26 

Glossary of English Words 32 

Glossary of Norman French Words .... 58 

Suggestive Questions 70 

Additional Exercises 71 



CHAPTER n. 

Derivation. 

Definition of a Derivative Word — Rule for forming 

Derivatives — Bad Hybrids . . . . 75 

(V) 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



Prefixes — English, Latin, Greek .... 
Suffixes — English, Latin, Greek .... 
Root-words of Latin Origin — of Greek Origin . 
Primary Analysis of Words used as Illustrations 
Suggestive Questions 



n6 

80 

84 

100 

115 



CHAPTER in. 
Prosody. 

Definitions of Prosody and a Metrical Foot — Princi- 
pal Metrical Feet — Uses of the Spondee, Am- 
phibrach, and Iambus 117 

Definitions of verse and stmtza — Names of Principal 
Verses — Blank Verse — Hexameter and Hep- 
tameter Verses — Illustrations of Different Met- 
rical Feet 118 

A Mixed Verse — Elision — The Additional Syllable . 

Ten Syllables in Blank Verse — Prosodic Rest — 

Scheme for Stanza — Rule for Scanning . . 119 

Exercises in Scanning . . . . . . 120 

Forms of Stanzas — Six line Chaucerian, Spenserian, 

and Burns' stanzas — the Sonnet . . . 122 



CHAPTER IV. 



The Sentence. 



Definition of a Correct Sentence . . . . 127 
/. Selection of Words — (i) Native, (2) Adopted, (3) 

Foreign Words 127 

(4) New Words — Rules for New Words . . 130 

(5) Vulgarisms — Cant Words — Provincialisms 
—Colloquialisms . . . . . 131 

Suggestive Questions . . . . . 135 

(6) Synonyms — Exercises in the Use of Syno- 
nyms — List of Synonyms . ... . 136 



CONTENTS. 



Vll 



(7) Pleonasm, (8) Periphrase, (9) Paraphrase 

Suggestive Questions 

//. Uses of Words — (i) The Noun — Illustrations of 
its Use . . . . . 

(2) The Adjective — Illustrations of its Use 

(3) The Pronoun — Illustrations of its Use 

(4) The Verb — Illustrations of its Use . 

(5) The Adverb — Illustrations of its Use 

(6) The Preposition— Illustrations of its Use 

(7) The Conjunction— Illustrations of its Use 
Suggestive Questions .... 

///. Arrangement of Words — (i) The Idiom ot a 
Language — The English Idiom 

(2) Inversion ...... 

(3) Unity 

(4) Variety — the Idiomatic and the Periodic 

Sentence — Diction .... 
Suggestive Questions .... 



146 
148 

148 
151 

153 
160 
166 
168 
176 
177 

178 

179 
180 

181 
187 



CHAPTER V. 

Rhetorical Figures. 

Definition of Figures — Figures of Imagination — Wit, 

Humor, and Satire — Figures of Emphasis. 190 

/ Word Figures of Imagination. — Metonymy — Epi- 
thet of Metonymy — Synecdoche — Epithet 
of Synecdoche — Metaphor — Metaphorical 
Epithet — Simile — Allusion — Personifica- 
tion — Time 190 

//. Thought Figures of Imagination. — Apostrophe — 
Sermocination — ^Vision — ■ Allegory — Fable 
-7-Parable — Hyperbole — Irony — Wit — Hu- 
mor — Satire 191 

III. Figures of Emphasis, — Exclamation — Repeti- 

tion — Interrogation — Negation — Antithe- 
sis — Climax ...... 193 

IV. Analysis of Figures. — Exercises in Analysis . 194 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Elements of Criticism. 

PAGIS 

/. Verbal Criticism. — Outline of Verbal Criticism 

(i) English and Latin Words; (2) Poetry; (3) 

Diction; (4) Arrangement . . . 218 

//. Thought Criticism. — (i) Epic poetry — Rules for 
Basis of Criticism — Criticism of Epic 
Poetry — Limitations of the Epic Poet . 220 

(2) Dramatic Poetry — The Unities . . . 223 
Comparison of the Ancient and Modern 1 

Drama 223 

Limitations of the Dramatist — Criticism of 

the Drama 224 

(3) Lyric Poetry — Principal divisions and criti- 

cism of . . . . . . 226 

(4) Prose Composition — (i) The Novel . . 226 
Subjective and Objective Novels . . 227 
Requirements of the Novel — Criticism of 

the Novel 228 

(2) History — Criticism of History . . 228 

(3) The Essay 230 

(5) Suggestiveness of an Author . , . 230 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



CHAPTER I. 

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The Celts. — The first inhabitants of the British 
Islands of whom we have any knowledge were 
Celts. Although the language of these people is 
still used in portions of Ireland, Wales, and the 
Highlands of Scotland, it never exerted any marked 
influence upon the English language. In the same 
manner as the Indian languages of the United States 
have given names to the natural features of the 
country and to its localities, so the Celtic language 
has left its marks upon Great Britain and Ireland. 

The Romans. — Julius Caesar's invasion of Britain 
in 55 B.C. was of no consequence in its effects upon 
the Britons. It was not until 70 A.D., one hun- 
dred and twenty-five years afterwards, that Agricola, 
the Roman general, effected the conquest of the 
island. The Roman Empire retained possession of 
the country until 420 A.D. During its occupation 
by the Romans, cities were built and were con- 
nected by magnificent roads. Agriculture and min- 
ing gave the island commercial importance. All 

(9) 



10 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

the institutions of the large towns and cities became 
Roman. Many youths were sent to Rome to be 
educated. When, however, the troubles of the 
Empire compelled the withdrawal of the Roman 
soldier from Britain, he left little more of his lan- 
guage behind him than the Celt left of his at the time 
he was finally dispossessed by the Saxon. It was not 
until after the Anglo-Saxons were converted to 
Christianity, about 596, that any noticeable number 
of Latin words was incorporated into the language. 
The Anglo-Saxons. — English history, as well as 
the language in which that history is written, is said 
to begin with the landing of Hengist and Horsa 
with a body of Jutes upon the island of Thanet, at 
the extreme north-eastern part of the county of 
Kent, in the year 449. This date marks the intro- 
duction into the island of the Anglo-Saxons, whose 
language forms the body of modern English. There 
were three tribes of Teutonic invaders of Britain, 
called by the general name of Saxons, because of 
the short, crooked sword (seax) which these war- 
riors carried under their loose garments. The Sax- 
ons proper came from Holstein, a country between 
the Elbe and the Eider rivers ; the Angles, from 
the southern part of the duchy of Sleswick ; and 
the Jutes, from the northern part of Sleswick. 
Thus, the inhabitants of a comparatively insignifi- 
cant strip of territory bordering on the North Sea, 
gave birth to a race of people that forms the two 
greatest nations of the world, — England and the 
United States of America, — with a language the 
most expressive ever devised by man. 



THE DANES. 1 1 

A curious fact in connection with the language of 
the Anglo-Saxons is this : the conquest of Britain 
by the Danes, and subsequently by the Normans, 
did not absorb and thus obliterate that language. 
The languages of France, Spain, Portugal, and 
Italy, called the Romance languages, in spite of the 
Gothic conquerors of those countries, are modifica- 
tions of the language of old Rome. The Latin is 
the foundation, and the Gothic has largely dis- 
appeared in the superstructure. The Anglo-Saxon, 
however, forms fully three fourths of the English 
language of to-day as used in literature. 

The Danes. — The first Danish incursion into 
Britain was made in the year 'j'^'j. From 1013 to 
1042 a Danish dynasty ruled the country. The 
Danish and Saxon being allied Teutonic languages, 
the extent of the influence of the Danes during 
the two hundred years of their contact with the 
Anglo-Saxons is not easy to determine; but it 
could not have been very great or there would 
have been more decided indications. There are a 
few words like buhvark, floe, fog, gamesome, hug, 
jiby rive, rift, shrug, slobber, smudge, smuggle, spray, 
and whisk, which are very probably Danish. 

The Normans. — The greatest event connected 
with the formative period of modern English was 
the Norman Conquest, in 1066. The conquerors 
did their best to supplant the language of the con- 
quered. Advancement in church and state de- 
pended upon a knowledge of Norman French. The 
children were taught French as soon as they could 
talk ; in the lower schools, Latin was construed in 



12 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

French. The result was, that the Norman French 
language, in tinae, so completely embodied itself 
with the Anglo-Saxon that the resulting language 
is, in many respects, different from either. 

What the German author Maetzner says upon 
this point is very appropriate in this place : * ' The 
Anglo-Saxon has bequeathed the facility of com- 
pounding words, and a considerable number of 
forms of derivation ; and, lastly, has chiefly deter- 
mined the formation of its periods. 

"The influence of the French shows itself, first, in 
regard to sounds : to it is, perhaps, to be ascribed 
the silence of the / before other consonants like /j 
V, k, vt ; as also the partial silence of the h and gh. 
It has also, perhaps, accelerated the silence of the 
final e, which, in Chaucer, is still often sounded. 
The introduction of the sibilant sound c=^s \s also 
due to the influence of French, Hkewise the diffu- 
sion of the letters z and v instead of the original/". 
It may also have co-operated in consigning to the 
Anglo-Saxon s almost exclusively the formation of 
the plural. It has further conveyed to English a 
number of forms of terminations which have given 
the language a fresh mobility, as they are often 
joined on to Germanic roots. Of no slight import 
is the influence of French upon the collocation of 
English words, whereby a freedom, not possessed 
by the German, is produced. 

*' The blending of the Germanic with the Romance 
imparts to English in general a richness of expres- 
sion for all shades of thought possessed by no other 
modern language. Its Germanic prosody makes 



THE LATIN. 1 3 

English more adapted for poetical forms than 
French, to which, however, it owes in part the dif- 
fusion of rhyme instead of alliteration, although 
rhyme was not quite foreign to Anglo-Saxon. With 
the boldness and force of Germanic speech," English 
unites the flexibiUty and polish of the Romance 
languages, and only the stunting of the words and 
the poverty in inflections, which frequently cause 
a monosyllabic barking, obstruct occasionally the 
artistic cultivation of the language." The important 
facts to be impressed upon the mind of the student 
are that the infusion of Norman French made En- 
glish a composite language, simplified its grammar, 
changed its orthography, and imparted to it the 
wonderful flexibility which has enabled it to incor- 
porate with itself necessary words from nearly all 
prominent languages, living and dead. 

The Norman French was spoken from the south- 
ern boundary of Flanders to the river Loire. Its 
basis is Latin. This was modified by the descend- 
ants of Rollo, the Norwegian, who, with his follow- 
ers, had secured possession of the country in 912. 
The introduction of any great number of Latin 
words into the English language, therefore, dates 
from the Norman Conquest. 

The next great influx of Latin takes its beginning 
from the ''Revival of Learning" in 1453. 

Through the Norman French the Latin is indirectly 
incorporated; through the ''Revival of Learning, " 
directly embodied. The following words illustrate 
this difference, and show how the English language 
has thus been enriched : 



14 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Latin. 


English-Latin. 


English-French. 


Balsamum 


balsam 


balm 


Benedictio 


benediction 


benison 


Calix 


calyx 


chalice 


Depictus 


depict 


paint 


Exemplum 


example 


sample 


Maledictio 


malediction 


malison 


Nutrimentum 


nutriment 


nourishment 


Oratio 


oration 


orison 


Pauper 


pauper 


poor 


Poenitentia 


penitence 


penance 


Privatus 


private 


privy 


Providentia 


providence 


purveyance 


Providere 


provide 


purvey 


Regulatus 


regulate 


rule 


Securus 


secure 


sure 


Senior 


senior 


sir 


Strictus 


strict 


strait 


Traditio 


tradition 


treason 



The first effect of the Norman French upon the 
Anglo-Saxon was in orthography. This is noticed 
in works written about the beginning of the twelfth 
century, — fifty years after the Conquest. The prin- 
cipal changes were as follows : 

"The vowel endings, a, o, u, were changed to e. 
That is, the termination an was changed to en, as to 
eSj ath to ethy um to en, ra and ru to re, on to en, 
od and ode to ed and ede. " * Thinga, things, changes 
to thingeyi ; heofan, heaven, to heofen; heofanas to 



^'English Accidence, Morris, page 50. 



CHANGES IN ORTHOGRAPHY. 1 5 

heofenaes ; berath, bear, to bereth; mannum, men, to 
mannen; ealra, of all, to aires; moton, might, to 
moten; wulfas, of a wolf, to witlfes ; clotJiod^ clothed, 
to clothed. 

From the year 1150 to 1200 several grammatical 
changes occurred : 

"I. The Indefinite Article a, an, is developed 
out of the numeral an (one). 

' * 2. The Definite Article becomes the instead of 
se. 

'*3. The nominative plural ends in en instead of 
a or II. 

* ' 4. Plurals in es sometimes take the place of en, 
and the genitive occasionally ends in es. 

**5. The Infinitive frequently drops the final n, 
and to is sometimes used as a sign of it. 

"6. Shall and will begin to be used as tense 
auxiliaries of the Future.''^ 

From the year 1350 to 1460, the changes into 
somewhat modern forms are as follows: 

" I. The es in the plural and genitive is mostly a 
separate syllable. 

"2. /is used for ic\ sche (she) for heo ; him, 
them, whom, are used after a verb or preposition ; 
cures (ours) ; youres (yours) ; hei^es (hers) ; for oure, 
youre, here ; thei (they) for hi; here is equivalent to 
their ; and hem to them. 

**3. The Present Participle usually ends in ing. 

"4. Pinal e represents an older vowel ending, 



'^'English Accidence, pages 51, 52. 



1 6 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

such words as nama, sunn, becoming name, sune ; it 
also represents the plural of adjectives; it is the 
mark of the adverb ; and also a sign of the Infini- 
tive and Imperative Moods, and of the Past Tense. 

''5. Towards the end of this period the forms of 
the pronouns their, theirs, them come into use."* 

The result of these and other changes was to 
convert the Anglo-Saxon from a pure and highly 
inflected language into one in which the only inflec- 
tions are in the Number, Gender, and Possessive 
Case of Nouns ; in the Personal Pronouns ; who and 
which of the Relative Pronouns; the comparison of 
Adjectives and Adverbs ; and the Second and Third 
Persons Singular of Verbs. In its grammatical 
structure, therefore, the English is the simplest of 
all existing languages. 

The diffusion of classical learning brought about 
by the Revival of Learning in 1453; the introduc- 
tion of printing into England in 1474; and the man- 
ufacture of paper out of linen rags, contributed 
very largely towards giving the language the fixed 
forms it has to-day. 

Suggestive Questions. 

1. Look up something about the migrations of the Celts. 

2. What influence has the Celtic language left upon the 
Enghsh ? 

3. When and by whom was the conquest of Britain effected 
by the Romans? 



* English Accidence, page 55. 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. • 1 7 

4. What did the Romans accomplish while occupying 
Britain ? 

5. What effect did this occupation have upon the English 
language ? 

6. When was the first influx of Latin words in the English 
language ? 

7. V/hen is the history of the English language said to 
begin ? 

8. Describe the Anglo-Saxons. 

9. Name the Romance languages. 

10. What effect did the Roman conquest have upon the 
languages of Spain, Portugal, and France ? 

11. Compare this effect with that of the -conquest of England 
by the Danes and Normans. 

12. How long did the Danes rule England? 

13. What is the difficulty in tracing the Danish influence 
upon the English language ? 

14. Look up an outhne of the Norman Conquest. 

15. What has the Anglo-Saxon given to the English lan- 
guage ? 

16. What has been the influence of the French language ? 
Illustrate in the words half, salve, walk, light, diffuse, ancestor, 
heaven, amazement. (Note silent /, gh, e ; soft c, v, and 
metit.^ 

17. Give ultimate effects of the infusion of the Norman 
French. 

18. At what time does the introduction of Latin words into 
English become most apparent ? When was the second great 
influx ? 

19. What is the difference between calyx and chalice in 
meaning ? What have oratio and orison in common .? What 
are the Latin sources of balm, paint, poor, purvey, and 
treason ? 

20. What changes in English orthography occurred about 
HOG A.D. ? 

21. What grammatical changes in English occurred from 
II 50 to 1200 A. D. ? 

E. E.— 2. 



i8 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



22. What changes into somewhat modern English forms 
occur from 1350 to 1460? 

23. Mention all the technical grammar the English lan- 
guage now possesses. 

Since the introduction of printing, words from 
other languages have been added to the EngHsh, 
and new words are being adopted as necessity re- 
quires. The following list will give a good idea 
of the character of the foreign words that, from the 
beginning to the present time, have been added to 
the original language : 





F 


rom the Celtic. 






babe 


brogues 


docket 


lubber 


potter 


bad 


bug 


down 


mattock 


pour 


bald 


bugbear 


drudge 


merry 


pout 


bard 


bump 


druid 


mirth 


pretty 


basket 


cabin 


fun 


mug 


prong 


bat 


cairn 


Z'^Z 


nape 


prop 


bicker 


cart 


glen 


nook 


pucker 


block 


cess-pool 


goggle-eyed 


pack 


quaff 


bludgeon 


clock 


gown 


pang 


quibble 


boast 


coax 


griddle 


peak 


quip 


bob 


cradle 


grounds 


peck 


ribbon 


bodkin 


crag 


gull 


pert 


rub 


bog 


crock 


gun 


pet 


shamrock 


boggle 


crone 


gyves 


pick 


skein 


boisterous 


cub 


ingle 


pike 


skip 


bother 


cudgel 


kick 


pitch 


snag 


brag 


curd 


knock 


plod 


spree 


bran 


cut 


knuckle 


poke 


stab 


brat 


dagger 


lad 


pony 


tack 


brawl 


darn 


lag 


pool 


tether 


bribe 


dirk 


lass 


pot 


welt 


brisk 


dock 

Fr 


loop 
■om the Gcelic. 


pother 




cateran 


claymore 


pibroch 


reel 


whisky 


clan 


loch 


plaid 


slogan 





FOREIGN WORDS. 



19 



From the Welsh. 
clutter I flannel | flimsy | funnel 

From the Irish. 



maggot 



From the Persian. 



bey 



From the Turkish. 
caftan | chouse | dey 



gallowglass 
lough 


orrery 


rapparee 


spalpeen 


tory 




Frofn the Hebrew. 




cabal 

cherub 

cinnamon 


Jehovah 

jug 
Messiah 


Nazarite 
sanhedrim 


Satan 
seraph 


shekel 
shibboleth 




From the Hindu. 




calico 
chintz 


loot 
nabob 


palanquin 
punch 


rupee 


toddy 




From the Chinese. 




China 


Chinese | nankeen | tea 
From the Arabic. 


1 typhoon 


alkali 
arrack 
attar 
azimuth 


azure 
elixir 
emir 
harem 


hegira 
hookah 
Koran 
Mahometan 


Moslem 
nadir 
salaam 
sheik 


sherbet 
simoon 
sofa 
vizier 



awning 


dervish 


jackal 


peri 


shah 


bazaar 


divan 


jasmin 


sash 


shawl 


caravan 


ghoul 


Musselman 


sepoy 


Tartar 


caravansary 


houri 


pasha 







I ketch 



20 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



From the Malay. 



bamboo 


cockatoo 


mango 


rum 


caddy- 


gong 


orang-outang 


sago 


cassowary 


gutta-percha 


rattan 


upas 



From the Italian. 



allegro 


dado 


levant 


redoubt 


altruism 


dilettante 


maccaroni 


regatta 


andante 


ditto 


madonna 


rocket 


archipelago 


doge 


madrigal 


seraglio 


artichoke 


duel 


malaria 


sienna 


askance 


duet 


manifesto 


sign or 


attitude 


falchion 


mantua 


sirocco 


balcony 


felucca 


marmot 


soda 


balustrade 


floss 


mezzotinto 


solo 


bandit 


fresco 


milliner 


sonata 


baritone 


galvanism 


miniature 


soprano 


belladonna 


giaour 


monkey 


spinach 


bombast 


gondola 


monsoon 


stanza 


bravo 


grampus 


motto 


stilletto 


bunion 


granite 


ninny 


stucco 


cameo 


grotto 


nuncio 


torso 


canto 


gurgle 


opera 


trill 


caricature 


imbroglio 


piano 


trio 


casino 


incognito 


piano-forte 


umbrella 


catacomb 


influenza 


piazza 


velvet 


cicerone 


infuriate 


portico 


vermicelli 


comply 


intaglio 


profile 


vista 


contraband 


isolate 


punch 


volcano 


contralto 


junket 


quartet 


voltaic 


cupola 


lagoon 


quota 


zany 


cufvet 


lava 


rebuff 





From the Portuguese. 



betel 


dodo 


moidore 


port 


binnacle 


emu 


molasses 


tank 


calabash 


ipecacuanha 


pagoda 


veranda 


caste 


junk 


palaver 


yam 


cockroach 


lasso 


pimento 


zebra 


cocoa 


mandarin 







FOREIGN WORDS. 



21 



From the Spanish. 



alligator 


carmine 


filigree 


mosquito 


alpaca 


cask 


flamingo 


negro 


ambuscade 


chocolate 


flotilla 


olio 


anchovy 


cigar 


galleon 


pecadillo 


armada 


cinchona 


garrote 


potato 


armadillo 


cochineal 


grandee 


punctilio 


arsenal 


commodore 


guano 


quadroon 


banana 


comrade 


guava 


quixotic 


bastinado 


condor 


guerilla 


renegade 


battledoor 


copal 


hidalgo 


sarsaparilla 


booby 


cork 


hurricane 


sherry 


bravado 


courtesan 


iguana 


stevedore 


brocade 


domino 


junta 


talisman 


buffalo 


don 


lilac 


tent 


cannibal 


dragoman 


maize 


tobacco 


canoe 


duenna 


matador 


tornado 


capsize 


dulcimer 


merino 


ultramarine 


cargo 


filibuster 


minaret 


vanilla 




From the Fren 


ch. {Directly.) 




andiron 


cotillion 


galley 


magnolia 


arras 


crochet 


gallon 


maraud 


artesian 


curlew 


garbage 


martin 


baboon 


cygnet 


garland 


martinet 


barren 


dart 


gasconade 


martingale 


barter 


dine 


gavotte 


martlet 


bastile 


disease 


gibbet 


mortise 


baton 


drug 


giblets 


naivette 


bayonet 


drugget 


gingham 


nonchalance 


bevel 


dupe 


gobelin 


pillory 


bijou 


ease 


gormandize 


pinch 


bivouac 


embattle 


gourmand 


pirouette • 


blonde 


emblazon 


grapple 


pittance 


blouse 


emboss 


grouse 


poplin 


brave 


embrasure 


guillotine 


protege 


breeze 


embroider 


guzzle 


renaissance 


broil 


embroil 


harass 


ricochet 


buffoon 


entice 


harlequin 


roan 


caliber 


entrench 


harlot 


seance 


calipers 


exchequer 


haunt 


sedan-chair 


champagne 


frippery 


jacket 


silhouette 


chicanery 


furbelow 


lees 


valise 


cockade 


furbish 


lozenge 


vernier 



22 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Through the French. {From Various Sources.') 



abase 


barbed 


brazier 


abet 


barberry 


bribe 


acolyte 


bargain 


brick 


aery 


barge 


brig 


aid-de-camp 


barque 


brigade 


alchemy 


barracks 


brigand 


alcohol 


barricade 


brigantine 


alcove 


barrier 


brisket 


alembic 


basement 


broider 


alert 


bass 


bronze 


allegiance 


bassoon 


browse 


allegory 


baste 


bruit 


allure 


bastion 


brunette 


almanac 


battalion 


brusque 


amber 


bauble 


buccaneer 


ambush 


bawd 


buckram 


amulet 


beadle 


budget 


anchorite 


beak 


bulletin 


apartment 


bedouin 


bun 


apostasy 


belle 


burlesque 


apostate 


bergamot 


burnish 


apricot 


bet 


bushel 


arcade 


bigot 


bust 


arrange 


billet 


butcher 


artisan 


billiards 


buttery 


assassin 


bittern 


buttress 


attach 


bivouac 


cabal 


attack 


bizarre 


cadet 


auburn 


blanch 


caliph 


award 


blank 


calm 


bagatelle 


blanket 


camphor 


baggage 


blazon 


candy 


baldric 


blemish 


canopy 


ball 


bondage 


canteen 


ballad 


boot 


caoutchouc 


ballet 


border 


caprice 


balloon 


bottle 


capstan 


ballot 


bound 


car 


baluster 


bouquet 


carat 


bandy 


bourn 


carbine 


banish 


brandish 


carcass 


banisters 


brawl 


card 


banquet 


brawn 


career 



carnival 

carousal 

carouse 

carry 

cartridge 

cascade 

casemate 

casque 

cassock 

catalogue 

cauterize 

cavalcade 

cavalier 

cavalry 

chamois 

charade 

chariot 

charlatan 

check 

choice 

chronicle 

cider 

citadel 

climate 

clinical 

clique 

colonel 

colonnade 

compliment 

compost 

concert 

cornice 

corporal 

corridor 

corsair 

cortege 

corvette 

coterie 

cotton 

cravat 

cray-fish 

Creole 

cricket 



FOREIGN WORDS. 



23 



crimson 


frigate 


harbinger 


maudlin 


crosier 


frisk 


hash 


medal 


cruet 


friz 


hatchet 


menagerie 


crupper 


frock 


haversack 


menial 


crush 


frown 


heinous 


mien 


cuirass 


fudge 


hobby 


mignonette 


dance 


fugue 


hobby-horse 


minion 


dart 


fur 


hod 


mizen 


debris 


furnish 


hoe 


moat 


debut 


gable 


horde 


mock 


decant 


gaity 


housings 


model 


demarcation 


gala 


hut 


mohair 


depot 


gallant 


identify 


moraine 


dome 


gallery 


improvise 


mosque 


doubloon 


gambol 


indigo 


motley 


douche 


garb 


infantry 


moustache 


drape 


garble 


install 


muffle 


droll 


garnish 


jacobin 


mummy 


ducat 


garter 


janisary 


mushroom 


ebony 


gash 


javelin 


musk 


eclat 


gauge 


jig 


musket 


embrocation 


gauze 


job 


muslin 


emery 


gazelle 


jockey 


myrrh 


enamel 


gimlet 


jubilee 


myrtle 


equerry 


gimp 


julep 


niche 


equip 


goal 


label 


nitre 


escalade 


gobbet 


lackey 


norman 


eschew 


grapnel 


lampoon 


ogre 


escort 


grate 


lazar 


oleander 


esplanade 


grenade 


lemon 


omelet 


etiquette 


grimace 


leviathan 


ottoman 

packet ^ 


fapade 


grisette 


liege 


farthingale 


grizzly 


lime 


paladin 


fauteuil 


grotesque 


liturgy 


palette | 
pantaloons f 


festival 


group 


lobe 


fief 


gruel 


locket 


parade 


fife 


grumble 


magazine 


paragon 


filbert 


guarantee 


magic 


parapet 


filter 


guard 


mameluke 


parasol 


flagon 


guide 


manage 


partisan 


florin 


gusset 


marmalade 


pasquinade 


foible 


gypsy 


marten 


pastel 


forage 


haberdasher 


mask 


patriot 


fracas 


hack 


masquerade 


patrol 


frank 


hackney 


massacre 


patten 


freight 


hamlet 


mastifl" 


peach 


frieze 


harangue 


mattress 


peccary 



24 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Through thi 


' French. {From 


Various Sources.') 


Continued. 


peruke 


race 


seneschal 


tawny 


pewter 


racket 


siege 


termagant 


picket 


raffle 


skiff 


terrace 


pilaster 


random 


slate 


ticket 


pinnace 


range 


slave 


tier 


pint 


rapier 


slice 


tirade 


pique 


rasp 


soiree 


toucan 


pirogue 


ream 


somersault 


track 


pistol 


reprisal 


sonnet 


trap 


piston 


retire 


soup 


trousseau 


pitcher 


revolt 


spaniel 


turkey 


pivot 


rice 


spavin 


turquoise 


placard 


rinse 


spinet 


ukase 


policy 


risk 


spruce 


ultramontane 


poltroon 


robin 


squad 


umber 


pomade 


rodomontade 


squadron 


valet 


pontoon 


romp 


staid 


varlet 


populace 


rubbish 


stallion 


vedette 


porcelain 


ruffian 


staple 


vogue 


postilion 


saber 


stew- 


wafer 


pouch 


saccharine 


stout 


wager 


preconcert 


salad 


strive 


warble 


prestige 


salic 


stubble 


wardrobe 


programme 


salmagundi 


sultan 


whoop 


pulley- 


saloon 


sumach 


wicket 


putty 


sassafras 


syrup 


wince 


quadrille 


satchel 


talc 


wizard 


quay 


satrap 


tan 


zenith 


quill 


scabbard 


tariff 


zero 


quinine 


scamper 


tarnish 


zigzag 




From t} 


-e Dutch. 




ahoy 


brackish 


clinker 


dot 


aloof 


brandy 


cruise 


drill 


avast 


bruin 


dapper 


easel 


ballast 


bum-boat 


deck 


elope 


belay 


bumpkin 


delf 


etch 


beleaguer 


buoy 


dell 


excise 


bluff 


burgomaster 


derrick 


firkin 


blunderbuss 


buskin 


doit 


flout 


boom 


caboose 


dollar 


foist 


boor 


clamp 


domineer 


fop 



FOREIGN WORDS. 



25 



Fro7n the Dutch. — Continued. 



frolic 


hustle 


ogle 


stoker 


fumble 


isinglass 


periwig 


stove 


furlough 


jeer 


plug 


stripe 


gas 


jerkin 


rant 


sutler 


gherkin 


kink 


ravel 


swab 


glib 


knapsack 


reef 


switch 


groove 


landgrave 


rover 


taffrail 


growl 


landscape 


rufae 


toy 


gruff 


ledger 


selvage 


trick 


gulp 


litmus 


sketch 


trigger 


harpoon 


loiter 


skipper 


uproar 


heyday 


lollard 


slim 


wagon 


hogshead 


lop 


sloop 


wainscot 


hoiden 


manikin 


sloven 


walrus 


hoist 


margrave 


snaffle 


wig 


holland 


measles 


snap 


wiseacre 


holster 


mope 


snip 


yacht 


hottentot 


morass 


splice 


yawl 


huckster 


mumps 


stipple 





From the German. 



bismuth 


gneiss 


mesmerize 


swindler 


Dutch 


huzzah 


plunder 


veneer 


feldspar 


landau 


poodle 


waltz 


fuchsia 


maulstick 


quartz 


zinc 


fugleman 


meerschaum 


shale 





From the American. 



calumet 

hammock 

hominy 


macaw 

mahogany 

moccasin 


pampas 

puma 

raccoon 


tapir 

tolu 

tomahawk 


jaguar 

jalap 

llama 


moose 
ocelot 
opossum 


skunk 
squaw 
tapioca 


wampum 
wigwam 



As the distinctions between the Anglo-Saxon and 
Romance elements of the English language are gen- 
erally strongly marked, it is well to indicate them. 



E. E. 



26 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



The pronouns, except they, and many of the 
monosyllables, are Anglo-Saxon ; also the numerals, 
except secondy auxiliary verbs, defective verbs, prep- 
ositions and conjunctions, nouns that form their 
plural and verbs their past tense by a change of 
vowel, and adjectives of irregular comparison. Most 
of the terms pertaining to government, religion, the 
law, and to gems are Norman French. Specifically, 
the following comparisons, including only such 
words as were in the language before 1300, can be 
seen at a glance. 





Religion. 






English. 


French. 


ban 


abbess 


minister 


recluse 


banns 


abbey 


miracle 


religion 


cowl 


altar 


ordain 


remission 


easier 


baptize 


order 


repent 


God 


benison 


orison 


repentant 


gospel 


canon 


palmer 


repentance 


hallow 


chalice 


paradise 


reverence 


heathen 


chapel 


parson 


sacrament 


heaven 


chapter 


patriarch 


sacred 


hell 


chime 


penance 


sacrifice 


holiness 


clergy 


penitence 


saint 


holy 


confessor 


pilgrim 


salvation 


lammas 


creed 


preach , 


sermon 


lent 


cross 


preacher 


simony 


ordeal 


crucifix 


prelate 


spirit 


tithe 


disciple 


prior 


tabernacle 


Whitsunday 


discipline 


prioress 


temple 


worship 


divinity 


priory 


trinity 




friar 


prophecy 


vestment 




incarnation 


prophet 


vigil 




incense 


psaltery 






litany 


purgatory 






Gems. 




French. 


crystal 


emerald 


'jasper 


pearl f sapphi 


diamond 


garnet 


J 


ewel 


ruby 


1 topaz 



ENGLISH AND NORMAN FRENCH. 



27 



Government Offices and Titles. 



English. 



French. 



alderman 


admiral 


empire 


seignior 




borough 


ambassador 


empress 


senate 




burgher 


army- 


engineer 


senator 




earl 


bailiff 


general 


sire 




folk 


baron 


governor 


sovereign 




guild 


baronage 


homage 


squire 




king 


baronet 


madam 


state 




kingdom 


chamberlain 


majesty- 


subject 




knight 


chancellor 


marshal 


throne 




lady- 


chief 


master 


tournament 




lord 


chieftain 


mayor 


treasurer 




queen 


constable 


messenger 


treasury- 




sheriff 


constitution 


navy- 


treaty 


"1 


shire 


councellor 


noble 


tyranny 


steward 


count 


officer 


tyrant 




thane 


countess 


parliament 


vassal 




^war 


court 


peer 


viscount 






duke 


prince 


warden 






emperor 


reign 







Law. 



English. 




French. 




bequeaih 


acquit 


decree 


quash 


bequest 


adjudge 


default 


sergeant 


law 


amend 


devise 


squire 


lawyer 


assizes 


felon 


sue 


oath 


bailiff 


felony 


summon 


sheriff 


charter 


fine 


term 


ward 


citation 


inherit 


waive 




cite 


inquest 


warranty 




court 








The ( 


3HASE. 




English, 




French. 




arrow 


archer 


covert 


prey 


bow 


chase 


haunch 


quiver 


hound 








hunt 









28 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



The Human Body. 



English. 



French. 



ankle 


gore 


nail 


bachelor 


arm 


gristle 


navel 


corpse 


back 


gut 


neck 


corse 


beard 


hair 


nose 


countenance 


belly 


hand 


nostril 


damsel 


bladder 


head 


rib 


entrails 


blood 


heel 


shank 


face 


body 


hip 


shin 


figure 


bone 


jaw 


shoulder 


member 


bosom 


knee 


side 


palate 


brain 


lady 


sinew 


palm 


breast 


lap 


skull 


person 


brow 


leg 


soul 


spirit 


cheek 


limb 


sweat 


vein 


chin 


lip 


thigh 


visage 


ear 


liver 


throat 




elbow 


lock 


thumb 




eye 


maid 


toe 




finger 


maiden 


tongue 




fist 


man 


tooth 




flesh 


mankind 


waist 




foot 


mind 


whiskers 




forearm 


mother 


woman 




forefinger 


mouth 


womb 




forehead 


muscle 


wrist 






Occupations. 


Eni 


^lish. French. 


baker 


sawyer 


carpenter 


page 


bookseller 


seamstress 


clerk 


painter 


broker 


shepherd 


hostler 


partner 


chapman 


shoemaker 


laborer 


plasterer 


coUier 


smith 


laundress 


porter 


fisherman 


steward 


mariner 


robber 


fishmonger 


thatcher 


mason 


servant 


glover 


tinker 


mercer 


tailor 


groom 


weaver 


merchant 


vintner 


hosier 


workman 


messenger 




midwife 


witch 






player 


Wright 






sailor 




1 









ENGLISH AND NORMAN FRENCH. 



29 



Food and Drink. 



English. 


Fre 


nek. 


ale 


food 


beef 


pottage 


beer 


ham 


flour 


roast 


bread 


honey 


fruit 


sauce 


broth 


loaf 


lard 


spirits 


crumb 


malt 


liquor 


toast 


dough 


mead 


mutton 


treacle 


drink 


meal 


olive 


veal 


^m 


meat 


oyster 


venison 


flesh 


milk 


past^ 


victuals 



Weapons and Accoutrements. 



. English. 


French. 


arrow 


shaft 


archer 


hauberk 


axe 


sheath 


armor 


lance 


blade 


shield 


arms 


quiver 


bow 


spear 


banner 


standard 


bridle 


stirrup 


bugle 


tent 


halter 


sword 


glave 


truncheon 


helmet 


weapon 


harness 




saddle 









House and Furniture. 



English. 



French. 



barn 


eaves 


roof 


basin 


parlor 


bed 


fireside 


room 


chair 


pillar 


bedstead 


floor 


shelf 


chalice 


plate 


bell 


gate 


spoon 


chamber 


porch 


bench 


hall 


stair 


chapel 


postern 


besom 


hearth 


stall 


curtain 


quilt 


bolster 


house 


staple 


domicile 


stable 


bolt 


hovel 


stool 


garret 


tabernacle 


bower 


inn 


thatch 


lamp 


table 


bowl 


key 


threshold 


lantern 


temple 


broom 


latch 


tongs 


larder 


torch 


bucket 


lock 


trough 


palace 


tower 


can 


loom 


vat 






crib 


oven 


watch 






door 


rafter 


yard 







30 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 







Clothing. 


English. 




band 


cowl 


ring 


belt 


girdle 


shoe 


bodice 


glove 


sleeve 


braid 


hat 


smock 


breeches 


hood 


stocking 


clasp 


hose 


weeds 


cloth 


overalls 


wimple 


coat 







French. 



cap 

chemise 

cloak 

collar 

dress 

garment 



lace 

mantle 

pocket 

robe 

veil 

vestment 



The Animal Kingdom. 



English. 



French, 



adder 


donkey 


humble-bee 


sparrow 


beast 


ant 


dove 


kite 


spider 


buzzard 


ape 


drake 


lamb 


starling 


camel 


ass 


drone 


lapwing 


stork 


cattle 


bass 


duck 


lark 


swallow 


cock 


bear 


earwig 


louse 


swan 


dolphin 


beaver 


eel 


mare 


swine 


dragon 


bee 


finch 


midge 


tadpole 


dromedary 


beetle 


fish 


minnow 


teal 


eagle 


bird 


flea 


mite 


throstle 


elephant 


bitch 


fly 


mole 


thrush 


falcon 


bittern 


fowl 


moth 


toad 


jay 


boar 


fox 


mouse 


wasp 


lamprey 


buck 


frog 


newt 


weasel 


leopard 


bull 


gander 


nightingale 


weevil 


lion 


butterfly 


gar-fish 


otter 


whale 


lizard 


calf 


gnat 


owl 


wolf 


mackerel 


carp 


goat 


ox 


worm 


ostrich 


cat 


goose 


pig 


wren 


palfrey 


chafer 


goshawk 


puss 




peacock 


chaffinch 


gosling 


ram 




pelican 


chicken 


halibut 


rat 




plover 


colt 


hare 


raven 




pullet 


cony- 


hart 


roach 




quail 


cow 


hawk 


roe 




salmon 


crane 


heifer 


rook 




scorpion 


cricket 


hen 


shad 




squirrel 


cuttle-fish 


herring 


sheep 




sturgeon 


deer 


hornet 


shrimp 




tiger 


didapper 


horse 


snake 




turbot 


dog 


hound 


sow 




unicorn 



ENGLISH AND NORMAN FRENCH. 



31 



Natural Scenery. 



English. 



French. 



brook 


highland 


park 


bay- 


river 


burn 


hill 


sea 


country 


valley 


creek 


inlet 


spring 


desert 




dale 


island 


stream 


forest 




dingle 


land 


surf 


isle 




fen 


marsh 


thicket 


mountain 




field 


mead 


water 


nature 




grass 


meadow 


waterfall 


ocean 




haven 


moor 


wave 


plain 




height 


mound 


wood 


region 





Earth and Products. 





Engl 


Hsh. 




French. 


acorn 


earth 


linden 


sod 


anise 


alder 


elm 


loam 


sprig 


balm 


apple 


fern 


madder 


stalk 


branch 


arrowroot 


fir 


maple 


stem 


cherry 


ash 


flax 


mistletoe 


stone 


columbine 


aspen 


fleece 


moss 


straw 


fig 


barley 


foxglove 


mould 


tar 


flower 


bean 


garlic 


mullein 


thorn 


fruit 


beech 


gold 


nettle 


timber 


garden 


berry 


grass 


nightshade 


tin 


ginger 


birch 


green 


nut 


tree 


gravel 


blossom 


ground 


oak 


turf 


herb 


bough 


grove 


oakum 


twig 


mace 


bramble 


harebell 


oats 


walnut 


mandrake 


briar 


haw 


orchard 


wax 


mercury 


brimstone 


hay 


oxlip 


weed 


myrrh 


buckwheat 


hazel 


peat 


wheat 


oil 


bur 


hearts-ease 


pebble 


willow 


olive 


catkin 


heathen 


pond 


wool 


oyster 


chaff 


hemlock 


quicksilver 


wormwood 


palm 


clay 


holly 


reed 


wort 


poplar 


clover 


honeysuckle 


rye 


yew 


primrose 


coal 


iron 


sand 




saffron 


corn 


ivy 


sedge 




soil 


cress 


lead 


seed 




spice 


crop 


leaf 


shrub 




thyme 


daisy 


leak 


silver 




violet 



32 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Glossary of English Words in Use Before 1300. 



a, indefinite article, prefix. 

aback, backwards. 

abaft, behind. 

abed, in bed. 

abide^ to wait, endure. 

ablaze, on fire. 

aboard, on board. 

abode, a dwelling. 

about, around, concerning. 

above, over. 

abreast, side by side. 

abroad, spread out. 

accursed, cursed, wicked. 

ache, a severe pain. 

ackiiow ledge, to confess, own. 

acorn, fruit of the oak tree. 

acre, a field. 

adder, a venomous snake. 

addled, diseased, spoiled. 

ado, trouble. 

adow7i, downwards. 

adrift, floating at random. 

adze, a curved axe. 

afar, at a distance. [pense. 

afford^ to supply, stand the ex- 

ajfiright^ to frighten. 

afloat, on the water. 

afoot, on foot. 

afore, in front. 

afresh, anew. 

aft, behind. 

after, behind. 

aftermost, hindmost. 

afterward, subsequently. 

afterwards, subsequently. 

again, once more. 

against, in opposition to. 

agape, with open mouth. 

aghast, struck with horror. 

ago, time past. 

agone, time past. 

aground, on the ground. 

ahead, in front. 

ail, to feel or give pain. 



ajar, partly open. 

akin, related to. 

alack, an exclamation. 

alder, a species of tree. [cial. 

alderman, a town or city offi- 

ale, a kind of beer. 

alight, to descend. 

alike, resembling. 

alive, existing. 

all, every one of. 

allay, to quiet. 

almighty, all powerful. 

almost, nearly. 

alone, by oneself. 

along, lengthwise, accompany. 

aloud, loudly. 

already, quite ready. 

also, in like manner. 

although, however. 

altogether, completely. 

always, forever. 

am, first pers. sing, verb to be. 

amain, with full power. 

amaze, to astonish. 

amid, in the middle. 

afnidst, in the middle. 

a?no?tg, in a crowd. 

amo7tgst, in a crowd. 

an, indefinite article. 

and, conjunction. 

ajtent, near to. 

anew, newly. [foot. 

a7ikle, joint between leg and 

anofi, at once. 

another, one other. 

answer, reply. 

ant, a small insect. 

anvil, blacksmith's iron block. 

any, some one. 

ape, species of monkey. 

apple, species of fruit. 

arbor, bower made of branches. 

arch, cunning. 

aright, the right way. 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



33 



arise, to get up. 
arm, limb of the body. 
arrant, knavish. [bow. 

arrow, the missile shot from a 
as, conjunction, adverb. 
ash, a species of tree. 
ashamed, affected by shame. 
ashes, the dust of what is 

burned. 
ashore, on shore. 
aside, on one side, apart. 
ask, to request. 
asleep, in a sleep. 
asp, a species of tree. 
aspen, a species of tree. 
ass, a beast of burden, a fool. 
astern, on the stern, behind. 
astir, on the move. 
astonish, to amaze. 
astound, to amaze. 
asunder, apart. 
at, preposition. 
athirst, very thirsty. 
atone, to reconcile. 
attire, dress. 
auger, a tool for boring. 
aught, any thing. png. 

awake, to rouse, to cease sleep- 
aware, informed. 
away, out of the way, absent. 
awl, a tool for piercing holes. 
awry, distorted. 
axe, a tool for chopping trees. 
axle, axis on which a wheel 

turns. 
ay, yes. 

baa, to bleat like a sheep. 
babble, to talk foolishly. 
back, a part of the body. 
bag, a flexible receptacle. 
bake, to cook by heat. 
bale, evil. 
balk, to hinder. 
^<2/z, a proclamation, 
band, a fastening. 
^««^, injury. 



(5^;>^>^, a mound. [riage. 

banns, proclamation of mar- 

bare, naked. 

bark, to yelp like a dog. 

barley, a species of grain. 

barm, yeast. 

bar7i, a place for storing grain. 

barrow, a wheelbarrow. 

bass, a species of fish. 

batch, a quantity of bread. 

bath, a place for washing in. 

bathe, to use a bath. 

^^, to exist. 

beacon, a signal of fire. 

bead, a small perforated ball. 

beam, piece of timber, ray of 

light. 
bean, garden vegetable. 
bear, to carry, an animal. 
beard, hair on the chin. 
beat, to strike. 

beaver, a. fur-bearing animal. 
beck, a nod. 
beckon, to make a sign. 
become, to attain, to suit. 

bed, a couch to sleep on. 
bedew, to cover with dew. 
bedim, to make dim. 
bedridden, confined to bed. 
bedstead, the frame of a bed. 

bee, a honey-making insect. 
beech, a species of tree. 
beer, a malt liquor. 

beetle, a species of insect. 
befall, to happen. 
before, in front of. 
beforeha7td, previously. 
/^^^, to ask for alms. 
beget, to generate. 
begin, to commence. 
begone, oppressed. 
behalf, interest. 
behave, to conduct oneself. 
behavior, conduct. 
behead, to cut off the head. 
bjhest, a command. 
behind, after. 



34 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



behold^ to see. 

behoof, advantage, [stomach. 

belch, to expel gas from the 

belie, to tell lies of some one. 

believe, to have faith. 

bell, metallic vessel for ringing. 

bellow, to make a loud noise. 

bellows, an implement for blow- 
ing a fire. 

belly, the abdomen. 

belong, to pertain to. 

beloved, much loved. 

below, beneath. 

belt, a girdle. 

bemoa?t, to sorrow for. 

bench, a long seat. 

bend, to curve. 

beneath, under. 

benumb, to make numb. 

bequeath, to give by a will. 

bequest, that which is given by 
will. 

bereave, to deprive of. 

berry, a small fruit. 

berth, a secure position. 

beseech, to ask. 

beseem, to be becoming. 

beset, to surround or perplex. 

beshrew, to curse. 

beside, by the side of 

besides, moreover. 

besom, a broom. [for. 

bespeak^ to speak to, to speak 

bestow, to place. 

bestrew, to cover. 

bestride, to stride over. 

bethink, to call to mind. 

betide, to happen. 

betimes, in good time. 

betoken, to signify. 

betroth, to pledge for marriage. 

better, comparative of good. 

best, superlative of good. 

between, in the middle. 

betwixt, in the middle. 

beware, to be cautious. 

bewilder, to confuse. 



bewitch, to charm with witch- 
craft. 

beyond, on the farther side. 

(^zV/, to command. 

bide, to wait. 

bier, a support for a corpse. 

bill, a sword or ax, a bird's 
beak. 

^///, a receptacle for grain. 

^/;z<^, to fasten. 

birch, a species of tree, [wings. 

bird, a feathered animal with 

birth, a coming into being. 

bit, a small piece, curb for a 
horse. 

bitch, a female dog. 

bite, to cut with the teeth. 

bitter, harsh to the taste. 

bittern, a species of heron. 

black, very dark. 

bladder, the receptacle for 
urine in animals. 

blade, a leaf, flat part of sword. 

blare^ the noise of a trumpet. 

blast, a blowing. 

blaze, flame, to proclaim. 

bleach, to whiten. 

bleak, exposed, drear, [sheep. 

bleat, to make a noise like a 

bleed, to lose blood. 

blench, to shrink from. 

blend, to mix. 

bless, to make happy. 

blight, to blast, to mildew. 

blind, deprived of sight. 

blindfold, to make blind. 

blink, wink. 

bliss, happiness. 

blithe, happy. 

blood, gore. 

blossom, a small flower. 

blotch, a dark spot. 

blow, to puff, to bloom. 

blubber, fat. 

blurt, to utter rashly. 

blush, to grow red in the face. 

boar^ a species of wild hog. 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



35 



board, a plank, a table. 

boat^ a small vessel. 

bode, to foreshow. 

body, the form. 

boil, a small tumor. 

bold, daring. 

bolster, a long pillow. 

bolt, a stout pin, an arrow. 

bond, a tie. 

bone, part of a skeleton. 

bonfire, a fire to celebrate a 
festival. 

<^^<7>^, a volume. 

<^6'<9/, profit. 

^<?r^, to perforate. 

borough, a town. [trust. 

borrow, to receive money on 

bosoin^ front upper part of body. 

boito7n, lower part, foundation. 

bough, branch of a tree. 

bow, to bend, a bend, a weapon. 

bower, a lady's chamber. 

<5<?'ze//, a drinking vessel. 

braid, to entwine. 

brain, contents of skull. 

brake, a thicket. 

bramble, a prickly shrub. 

brand, burning piece of wood, 
sword. [tin. 

brass, a metal of copper and 

braze, to ornament with brass. 

breach, a fracture. 

bread, food made from grain. 

break, to snap. 

breast, front upper part of body. 

breath, respired air. 

breech, hinder part of body. 

breeches, garment for the thighs. 

breed, to produce. 

brew, to make malt liquor. 

briar^ prickly shrub. 

bridal^ a wedding. 

bride, woman just married. 

bridegroom, man just married. 

bridge, structure across a river. 

bridle, an arrangement for guid- 
ing a horse. 



bright, clear, shining. 

brim, the edge of a vessel. 

brijnstone, sulphur. 

brine, salt water for pickle. 

bring, to fetch. 

bristle, a stiff hair. 

brittle, easily broken. 

broad, wide. [ness. 

broker, a middle man in busi- 

brood, that which is bred. 

brook, a small stream, to en- 
dure, [sweeping. 

broom, a plant, implement for 

broth, soup. 

brothel, a house for prostitutes. 

brother, son of same parents. 

brow, above the eye, edge of 
hill. 

brown, a dark color. 

brown bread, coarse bread. 

buck, male deer. 

bucket, a receptacle for water. 

buckwheat, an edible grain. 

bud, a germ, to sprout. 

bull, male bovine. 

bundle, a package. 

burden, a load. 

burgher, a citizen. 

burial, a grave, act of burying. 

burn, to set on fire. 

bur, rough covering of seeds. 

burrow, shelter for rabbits. 

burst, to break forth. [town. 

bury, to put into the ground, a 

busy, occupied. [tion. 

but, preposition and conjunc- 

butterfiy, an insect with large, 
beautiful wings. 

buxom, obedient, healthy. 

buy, to purchase. 

buzz, to hum. 

by, preposition. [hen. 

cackle, to make a noise like a 

calf, the young of a cow. 

call, to cry out. 

callow, unfledged. 

calve, to produce a calf. 



36 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



can, to be able, a drinking 

vessel. 
care, anxiety. 
carp, a fish. 
carve, to cut. 
cat, a domestic animal. 
caterwaul, to cry as a cat. 
catkin, a loose spike of flowers. 
caw, to make a noise like a 

crow. 
chafer, a kind of beetle. 
chaff, husk of grain. 
chaffinch, a species of bird. 
<:-^<2/, to cleave, a fellow. 
chapman, a merchant. 
<:>^<2r, to turn to charcoal. 
chary, cautious. 
chat, to talk. 
chatter, to talk idly. 
cheek, side of the face. 
chew, bruise with the teeth. 
chicken, young fowl. 
chide, to scold. [cold. 

chilblain, a sore caused by 
child, a young person. 
chill, sudden coldness, cold. 
chin, end of lower jaw. 
chink, a crevice. [wood. 

chip, to chop, a small piece of 
chirp, to make a noise like a 

bird. 
^/^//, a sprout, a young child. 
choke, to throttle. 
choose, to select. 
^/^(9/, to cut suddenly. 
churl, a clownish person. 
cinder, refuse of a burnt coal. 
clack, to make a sharp noise. 
clank, to make a ringing sound. 
clash, a loud noise, to , make 

loud noise. 
clatter, a rattling noise. 
claw, talon of beast or bird. 
clay, tenacious earth. 
clean, pure. 

cleave, to split, to stick. 
clew, a guiding thread. 



click, to make a quick, light 
sound, 

cliff, a steep rock. 

climb, to ascend by grasping. 

clinch, to fasten firmly. 

r/z>z^, to hold fast. 

clink, to make a ringing noise. 

^/«?(^, a lump of earth. 

clot, coagulated blood. 

cloth, woven material. 

clothe, to cover with clothes. 

cloud, a mass of vapor in the 
air. [leaves. 

clover, a grass with three 

cluck, to call as a hen does. 

cluster, a bunch. 

clutch, a claw, to grip. 

coal, a combustible mineral. 

cobweb, web of a spider. 

coddle, to make effeminate. 

cold, without heat, chilled. 

collier, worker in a coal-mine. 

colt, a young horse. 

come, to move towards. 

comely, handsome. 

con, to examine closely. 

cony, a rabbit. 

coo, to make a noise as a dove. 

cool, slightly cold. 

corn, edible grain, 

cot, a small dwelling. 

cote, an inclosure. 

cove, a small bay. 

cow, female bovine 

cowl, a monk's hood. 

cowslip, a species of flower. 

crab, a shell-fish. 

crabbed, peevish, cramped. 

crack, to break suddenly and 
noisily, 

craft, skill, a trade. 

cram, to press together. 

cra77tp, a light restraint, con- 
traction. 

cra7iberry,-a.s>oVix\itxxy. [bird. 

crane, a species of wading 

crank, a bent arm or axis. 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



37 



crave, to beg earnestly. 
creak, to make a sharp, grating 

sound. 
creek, a cove, a small stream. 
creep, to crawl as a snake. 
cress, species of water-plant. 
crib, a manger, a cradle. 
crick^ a sharp pain in the neck. 
cricket, a game with bat and 

ball. 
cringe, to fawn. 
crinkle, to wrinkle slightly. 
cripple, one who has not full 

use of his limbs, [sound. 
croak, to make a low, hoarse 
crook, a book, a bent staff. 
<:n?^, the craw of a bird. 
crouch, to cower. [cock. 

crow, to make a noise as a 
crowd, to push. 
crumb, a small morsel. 
crumple, to squeeze into folds. 
crutch, a staff for a cripple. 
<:z^</, food chewed over again. 
cuddle^ to fondle. 
<:z/^ end of a sleeve. 
cunning, skillful, knowing. 
curse, to imprecate evil. [lusk. 
cuttle-fish, a species of mol- 

daisy, a species of flower. 
dale, low place between hills. 
dally, to trifle. 

^(^7/^, a bank to restrain water. 
damp, moisture. 
dandle, to toss a child. 
dare, to venture. 
^^r>^, obscure. 
darkling, in the dark. 
dark?tess, state of being dark. 
darksojne, somewhat dark. 
darling, a little dear. 
daughter, female child. 
dawn, to become daylight. 
day, the time of light. 
dead, without life. 
deaf, defective in hearing. 



deal, a share, to traffic. 

dear, beloved. 

dearth, scarcity. 

death, end of life. 

deed, an act. 

deem, to suppose. [wards. 

deep, extending far down- 

deer, a wild animal. 

delve, to dig. [beast. 

den, a cave, lair of a wild 

dent, the mark of a blow. 

depth, deepness. 

dew, moisture. 

didapper, a diving bird. 

dig, to turn up earth with a 

spade. 
dike, a ditch, an embankment. 
dim^ not easily seen. 
dimple, a depression. 
din, a loud noise. 
ding, to beat or ring. 
dingy, soiled or dimmed. 
ditit, a blow. 
dip, to plunge. 

distaff, a staff used in spinning. 
ditch, a trench. 
dive, to plunge into water. 
dizzy, giddy. 
do, to perform. 
dodge, to evade. 
doe, a female deer, 
rt^^ to take off. 
dog, a domestic animal. 
dole, a small portion. 
dolt, a simpleton. 
<^(!7;z, to put on clothes. [ass. 
donkey, familiar name for an 
doom, a judgment. 
doomsday-book, ]\)i^gv!\QVLX.'hoo\i. 
door, entrance to a building. 
dotage, childishness. 
dotard, a foolish person. 
dote, to be foolish. 
dough, kneaded flour. 
doughty, valiant. 
dove, a species of bird, [gether. 
dovetail, to fasten boards to- 



38 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



down, adverb and preposition. 

draft, act of drawing. 

drain, to draw off gradually. 

drake, male of the duck. 

draught, a drawing. 

draw, to pull along. 

dray, a low cart. 

dread, to fear. 

dream, a vision; to see a vision. 

drear, gloomy or cheerless. 

dreary, gloomy or cheerless. 

drench, to fill with drink. 

drift, that which is driven. 

drink, to swallow a liquid. 

drive, to push forward. 

drivel, to slaver, to speak fool- 
ishly. 

drizzle, to rain slightly. 

drone, a low sound, a bee. 

drop, a small particle of liquid. 

dross, scum. 

drought, dryness. 

drove, a herd. 

drown, to lose life by water. 

drub, to beat. 

drunk, intoxicated. 

drunkard, one who gets drunk. 

dry, without moisture. 

dub, to confer knighthood. 

duck, a swimming bird, to 
dive. 

dull, stupid. 

dumb, unable to speak. 

dung, excrement. 

dusk, dim. 

dust, fine powder. [son. 

dwarf, a small, deformed per- 

dwelL to reside, to linger. 

dwiiidle, to waste away. 

dye, to color. 

each, every one. 
ear, organ of hearing. 
earl, a title of nobility. 
early, in good time. 
earn, to get by labor. 
earnest, seriousness. 



earth, soil. [ous legs. 

earwig, an insect with numer- 

east, where the sun rises, 

easier, a Christian festival. 

eat, to devour. 

eaves, lower edges of a roof. 

ebb, flowing back of the tide. 

edge, border. 

eel, a fish of snake-like form. 

egg, an oval body containing 

the germ of an animal. 
eh, exclamation. 
eight, numeral adjective. 
eighteeft, numeral adjective. 
eighth, numeral adjective. 
eighthly, numeral adjective. 
eightieth, numeral adjective. 
eighty, numeral adjective. 
either, one of two. 
eke, to increase by little, also. 
elbow, bend of the arm. 
eld, old age, antiquity. 
elder, older. 
eldest, oldest. 
eleven, numeral adjective. 
eleventh, numeral adjective. 
elf, a little sprite. 
ell, a measure of length. 
elm, a species of tree. 
else, otherwise. 
enibers, hot ashes. 
emmet, an ant. 
empty, without contents. 
end, termination. 
enough, sufficient. 
ere, before. 
errajid, a message. 
erst, first. 

eve, latter part of the day. 
even, equal, level. 
evening, latter part of the day. 
ever, continually. 
every, each one. 
every-where, in every place. 
evil, wicked. 
ewe, a female sheep. 
eye, organ of sight. 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



39 



fai7i, glad. 

fair, beautiful. 

fall^ to drop down. 

fallow, pale yellow, untilled. 

fang, a tusk. 

far, distant. 

fare^ to travel, speed. 

farther^ more distant. 

farthest, most distant. 

farthing, the fourth of a penny. 

fast, speedy. 

fasten, to secure. 

fastness, a stronghold. 

/(3:/, stout. 

father, a male parent. 

fathom, a measure of six feet. 

fear, dread. 

feather^ a plume from a bird. 

/<?^, property, payment. 

feed, to take food. 

feel, to perceive by touch. 

fell^ to cut down, cruel. 

felloe, part of rim of a wheel. 

/?//, cloth made by matting 

wool. 
fen, a bog. [fronds. 

fern, a plant with feathery 
ferry, to carry across a stream. 
fester, to rankle. 
fetter, a shackle. 
/<?z^^, hatred, 
/^w, a small number. 
fickle, deceitful. 
field, an open space of land. 
fiejid, a cruel enemy. 
fifteen, numeral adjective. 
fifth, numeral adjective. 
fifty, numeral adjective. 
fight, to contend. 
fill, to make full. 
film, a thin skin. 
filth, foul matter. 
fin, wing-like organ of a fish. 
fiftch, a species of bird. 
fijtd^ to discover what is lost. 
finger, part of the hand. 
fir^ a species of tree. 



fire, heat and light of flame. 
fireside, a place near the fire. 
first, foremost. [by gills. 

fish, a water animal breathing 
fist, the clenched hand. 
five, numeral adjective. 
fivefold, numeral adjective. 
fiabby, soft and yielding. 
fiag, to droop. 
fiax, a. species of plant. 
fiay, to strip off the skin. 
fiea, a small, voracious insect. 
fieece, a sheep's covering of 

wool. [to move rapidly. 
fleet, a number of ships, swift, 
flesh, soft covering of body of 

animals. 
flicker, to flutter. 
flight, act of flying. 
fli7it, a species of stone. 
flirt, to trifle in wooing. 
flitch, a side of bacon. 
float, to swim on a liquid. 
flock, company. 
flood, a great flow of water. 
floor, a flat surface to walk on. 
flow, to glide. 
flutter, to flap the wings. 
fly, to "move in the air as a 

bird. 
foal, the young of a mare. 
foam, froth. 
fodder, food for cattle. 
foe, an enemy. 
fold, to double together. 
folk, a crowd of people. 
follow, to go after. 
food^ what one eats. 
foot, extremity of leg. [tion. 
for, preposition and conjunc- 
f orb ear, to abstain. 
forbid, to prohibit. [river. 

ford, a shallow passage in a 
fore, in front. 
forearm, fore part of arm. 
forefather,2Lrv2^i\Q.t.'i\ox. [hand. 
forefinger, first finger of the 



40 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



forefoot, front foot of quadru- 
ped. 

forego, to go before, to give up. 

forehead, front of head above 
the eyes. 

foremost, most in front, 

foresee, to see beforehand. 

foresight, knowledge before- 
hand. 

forestall, to anticipate. 

foretell, to prophesy. 

forget, to lose remembrance. 

forgive, to give away, to remit. 

forlorn, desolate. 

forsake, to give up, to neglect. 

forsooth, in truth. [oath. 

forswear, to deny falsely under 

forth, forward. 

fortieth, numeral adjective. 

fortnight, two weeks. 

forty, numeral adjective. 

forward, towards the front. 

foster, to nourish. 

foul, unclean. 

foundling, a deserted child. 

four, numeral adjective. 

fourfold^ numeral adjective. 

fourteeji, numeral adjective. 

fourth, numeral adjective. 

fowl, a species of bird. 

fox, a small, cunning quad- 
ruped. 

foxglove, a species of flower. 

frame, to construct. 

free, at liberty. 

freeze, to harden with cold. 

fresh, new. 

fret, to eat away, to ornament. 

Friday, sixth day of the week. 

friend, an intimate acquaint- 
ance. 

fright, terror. [mal. 

frog, a small, amphibious ani- 

from, preposition. 

frost, frozen dew. 

froward, perverse. 

fulfill, to complete. 



full, complete. 
fulso?ne, satiating. 
furlong, an eighth of a mile. 
furrow, trench made by a plow. 
further, in addition to, a con- 
sequence. 
furze, 2l coarse plant. 
fuss, flurry. 

gainsay, to speak against. 

gall, bile, bitterness. 

gallows, an instrument for 
hanging criminals. 

game, sport. 

gammon, nonsense. 

gander, the male of the goose. 

gannet, a sea fowl. 

gape, to yawn. 

garfish, a species of fish. 

garlic, wild onion. 

gate, a passage, a door. 

gather, to collect. 

gawk, a simpleton. 

gear, harness. 

get, to obtain. 

gewgaw, a trifle. 

ghastly, terrible. 

ghost, a spirit. 

giddy, dizzy. 

gift, a present. 

gild, to overlay with gold. 

gird, to surround. 

girdle, a band for the waist. 

give, to bestow. 

glad, pleased. 

glare, to shine brightly. 

glass, a hard, brittle, transpar- 
ent substance. 

glaze, to furnish a window 
with glass. 

gleajn, d. beam of light, [tity. 

glean, to gather a small quan- 

glee, joy, mirth. 

glide, to slide. 

glisten, to shine brightly. 

glister, to shine brightly. 

glove, cover for the hand. 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



41 



glow, to shine brightly. 

gnarled, knotty. 

gnat, a small, stinging insect. 

gnaw, to bite roughly. 

go, to proceed. 

goad, sharp, pointed stick. 

goat, quadruped. 

God, the supreme being. 

goddess, a female divinity. 

godfather^ a male sponsor in 

baptism. 
Godhead, divinity. 
gold, a precious metal. 
good, excellent, virtuous. 
good?na7t, master of the house. 
gore, blood. 
gorse, a prickly shrub. 
goose, a domestic water bird. 
goshawk, a species of hawk. 
gosling, a young goose. 
gospel, the life of Christ. 
gossamer, fine, floating spider 

threads. 

gossip, a crony. 

grasp, to seize. 

grass, common herbage. 

grave, to cut. 

gray, white mixed with black. 

graze, to feed cattle. 

great, large. 

greedy, voracious. 

green, color of growing plants. 

greet, to salute, to weep. 

grim, fierce. 

gri7i, to snarl. 

grind, to reduce to powder. 

gripe, to seize forcibly. 

grisly, hideous. [ground. 

grist, a supply of grain to be 

gristle, cartilage. 

grit, gravel. 

groan, to moan. 

groom, a servant. 

grope, to feel one's way. 

ground, earth. 

grout, coarse meal. 

grove, a collection of trees. 
E. E,— 4 



grow, to increase. 

grub, to grope in the dirt. 

grunt, to make a noise like a 

pig- 
guest, one who is entertained. 
guild, an association. 
guilt, crime. 

gum, the flesh of the jaws. 
gut, an intestine. 

ha, an exclamation. 

hack, to mangle. 

haft, a handle. 

hag, an ugly old woman. 

haggard, lean, hollow-eyed. 

hail, frozen rain. 

hair, 2i filament on the skin. 

half, one of two equal parts. 

halibut, a large, flat fish. 

hall, a large room. 

halloo, a cry to draw attention. 

hallow, to make holy. 

halt, lame. [horse. 

halter, a rope for leading a 

halve, to cut into two equal 

parts. 
ham, the thigh. 

hainmer, tool for driving nails. 
hamper, to hinder. 
hand, extremity of the arm. 
ha^idcuff, a shackle for the 

hands. 
handicraft, 3. trade. [hands. 
handiwork, work done with the 
handle, to manage, to treat of. 
handsome, expert, beautiful. 
handy, expert, convenient. 
hang, to suspend. 
hard, solid. 

hare, a species of quadruped. 
harebell, a species of flower. 
hark, listen. 

harm, injury. [strument. 

harp, a stringed musical in- 
harrow, an implement for 

breaking clods. 
hart, a male deer. 



42 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



harvest, the ingathering of a 

hasp, a clasp. [crop. 

hat, covering for the head. 

hatch, to produce a brood. 

hatches, a frame over an open- 
ing in a ship. 

hate, extreme dishke, to detest. 

hatred, extreme dishke. 

have, to possess. 

haven, a harbor. [hawthorn. 

haw, a hedge, berry of the 

hawk, a bird of prey. 

hay, cured grass. 

hazel, a species of shrub. 

he, pronoun of third person. 

head^ uppermost part of body. 

headlong^ rashly. 

heal, to make whole. 

health, soundness of body. 

heap, a pile. 

hear, to perceive by the ear. 

hearken, to listen. 

hearsay, a rumor. [blood. 

heart, the organ that circulates 

hearth, the floor of a chimney. 

heart" s-ease, a pansy. 

hearty, cordial. 

heat, great warmth. 

heath, wild, open country. 

heathen^ an unbeliever. 

heather, a small, evergreen 
shrub. 

heave, to force up. 

heaven, dwelling-place of God. 

heavy, weighty. 

hedge, a fence. 

heed, to attend to. 

heel, back part of foot. 

heifer, a young cow. 

heigh-ho, an exclamation. 

height, elevation. 

hell, abode of evil spirits. 

helm, rudder of a vessel. 

helmet, armor for the head. 

help, to aid. 

helve, the handle of an ax. 

hem, border of a garment. 



hetnlock, a poisonous plant. 

hen, a female domestic fowl. 

hence, from this place or time. 

hench?nan, a servant. [nine. 

her, personal pronoun femi- 

herd, a group of animals. 

here, in this place. 

herring, a small fish. 

hest, a command. 

hew, to cut. 

hey, an exclamation. [mal. 

hide, to conceal, skin of an ani- 

hiding, a flogging. 

hie, to hasten. 

high, lofty. 

hight, was or is called. 

hill, an elevation of land. 

hilt, handle of a sword, [ant. 

hind, female of a stag, a peas- 

hinder, to check. 

hind?nost, last. 

hip, upper part of thigh. 

hire, wages. [noun. 

his, possessive personal pro- 

hiss, to make a noise like a 

snake. 
hist, an interjection. 
hitch, to move by jerks. 
hither, to this place. 
hive, a house for bees. 
ho, a call to excite attention. 
hoar^ white. 

hoard, a treasure, [matic plant. 
hoarhoiind, name of an aro- 
hoarse, having a rough voice. 
hob, part of a grate. 
hobble, to limp. 
hockey, a game. 
hold, to keep. 
hole, a cavity. 
holiday, a festival day. 
holiness, state of being holy. 
hollow, empty. 

holly, a prickly shrub, [land. 
holm, an islet in a river, flat 
holm-oak, evergreen oak. 
holt, a grove. 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



43 



holy^ sacred. 

ho7ne, place of residence. 
Jiomestead^ place of residence. 
homeward^ towards home. 
hone, a stone for sharpening 

tools. 
honey, fluid collected by bees. 
honeycomb, bees' receptacle for 

honey. 
honey-suckle, a climbing plant. 
hood, covering for the head. 
hoof, horny substances on feet 

of animals. 
hook, a bent piece of metal. 
hoop, a pliant strip of wood or 

metal of circular form. 
hop, to leap on one leg. 
hope, expectation, to expect, 
/^^'r;?, substance projecting from 

the head of an animal. 
hornet, a species of wasp. 
horse, a quadruped used for 

draught. 
hose, stockings. 
hot, very warm. [i^ig- 

hound, a dog trained for hunt- 
house, a dwelling-place, a 

family. 
hovel, a small hut. 
hover, to move to and fro. 
how, in what way. 
hub, projecting nave of a 

wheel. 
huddle, to crowd together. 
hue, color. 

huff, bluster. [of a ship. 

hull, the husk of grain, body 
hum, to make a droning sound. 
humble-bee, a humming bee. 
hummock, a mound. 
hunch, a hump. 
hundred, numeral adjective. 
hundredth, numeral adjective. 
hunger, desire for food. 
hunt, to chase wild animals. 
hurdle, a frame of wooden 

bars. 



hush, to enjoin silence. 

husk, the dry covering of some 

fruits. 
husky, hoarse of voice. 

/, personal pronoun, nomina- 
tive. 

ice, frozen water. 

icicle, a hanging point of ice. 

idle, not employed. 

if, conjunction. 

imbed, to place in a bed. 

in, preposition. 

ijiasmuch, seeing that. 

indeed, in truth. 

ingot, a mass of molded metal. 

inland, accessible part of coun- 
try. 

inlet, a small bay. 

i7ily, inwardly. 

inmate, occupant. 

inn, house of entertainment. 

inroad, a raid into an enemy's 
country. 

insight, power of seeing into. 

instead, in the place. 

into, preposition. 

inward, internal. 

iron, a metal. 

ironmojtger, a dealer in iron. 

island, land surrounded by 
water. 

it, personal pronoun, neuter. 

itch, to have irritation of the 
skin. 

ivy, a creeping evergreen. 

Jar, to make a harsh noise. 
Jaw, part of the mouth. 
Jerk, to give a quick motion. 
Jingle, to make a clinking 

sound. 
Jolt, to shake violently. 
Jowl, the jaw or cheek. 

keel, the bottom line of a ship. 
keen, eager, sharp. 



44 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



kernel, a grain. 

key, that which opens a lock. 

kin, relationship. 

ki7id, loving, character. 

kmdred, relations. 

kine, cows. 

king, a monarch. 

kingdom, the realm of a king. 

kirtle, a sort of petticoat. 

kiss, a salute with the lips. 

kite, a voracious bird, a toy. 

kith, kindred. 

kitten, a young cat. 

knave, a boy, a servant. 

knead, to work flour into dough, 

knee, the joint below the thigh. 

knell, toll of a bell. 

knife, a short cutting tool. 

knight, a youth, a servant, a 

soldier, 
^i'zz"/, to form into a knot. 
knoll, a hillock. 
^;«(9/, a tight fastening, a cluster. 
know, to recognize. 
knowledge , information. 

[ing. 
ladder, a frame used for climb- 
lade, to load. 
/«<^/i?, a large spoon. 
lady, a wife, a woman of rank. 
/^zV, den of a wild beast. 
lamb, young sheep. 
Lanimas, first of August. 
land, earth, country. 
lane, a narrow street or road. 
lank, lean. [to fold. 

lap, to lick, front part of body, 
lapwifig, a species of bird. 
larboard, left side of a ship. 
lark, species of bird, fun. - 
last, the hindmost, to endure. 
latch, a fastening. 
late, tardy. 

lath, a thin slip of wood. 
lather, a foam of soap. 
latter, another that follows. 
laughy sound indicating mirth. 



lavish, profuse. 

law, a rule of action. 

lazuyer, one who practices law. 

lay, to place. 

layer, a stratum. 

lea, a meadow. 

lead, to conduct. [book. 

leaf, part of a plant, part of a 

lean, to incline, thin. 

leap, to jump. 

learn, to acquire knowledge. 

least, smallest. 

leather, tanned skin. 

leave, to quit. [doctor. 

leech, a blood-sucking worm, a 

leek^ a species of onion. 

leer, a sly look. 

left, opposite to the right side. 

leman, a sweetheart. 

lend, to allow the use of. 

length, extent. [Tuesday. 

Lent, forty days from Shrove 

less, smaller. 

lest, for fear that. 

let^ to permit, to hinder. 

lewd, licentious. 

lick, to pass the tongue over. 

lid, a cover. 

lie, to rest, to speak falsely. 

lief, beloved. 

life, existence. 

lifelong, durifig life. 

light, illumination, not heavy, 

to descend. [to settle. 

lighten, to flash, to make easier, 
lightning, an illuminating flash. 
lights, lungs. [bling. 

like, to be pleased with, resem- 
limb, a member of the body, a 

branch. [tar. 

lime, burnt stone used for mor- 
limp, flexible. [wheel. 

linch-pin, a pin to fasten on a 
linden, a species of tree. 
linger, to tarry. 

link, joint of a chain, [mouth. 
lip, muscles forming part of 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



45 



lisp, to pronounce imperfectly. 
list, to desire. 
listen, to hearken. 
listless, uninterested. 
lithe, flexible of body. 
little, small. 

live, to exist. [ence. 

livelihood, means of subsist- 
livelong, long lasting. 
lively, active. [bile. 

liver, an organ that secretes 
lo, interjection. [burden. 

load, a burden, to put on a 
loaf, a mass of bread. 
loajn, rich surface soil. 
loa7i, a lending. 
loath, reluctant. [doors. 

lock, an instrument to fasten 
lode, a vein of ore. 
lodestar, the pole star. 
lodesto?ie, a stone that attracts 

metals. 
long, to desire earnestly. 
look, to behold. 
loo7n, machine for weaving. 
loose, free. 

loosen, to make free. 
lord, a master, a nobleman. 
lore, learning. 
lorn, desolate. 
lose, to part with. 
loss, damage. 
lot, a portion, fate. 
lottery, a distribution by chance. 
loud, noisy. 

louse, a species of vermin. 
lout, a clown. 
love, strong affection. 
low, to bellow with pleasure. 
lower, to frown. 
luff, to turn a ship to the wind. 
lukewarm, partially warm. 
lung, one of the organs of 

breathing. 
lust, intense desire. 
lye, water charged with alkali 

of wood ashes. 



mad, insane. 

madder, a species of plant. 

maid, a girl. 

maiden, a girl. 

main, strength or might. 

make, to produce. 

malt, grain partially fermented. 

man, a human being. 

ma?ihood, state of being a man. 

manifold, many fold or various. 

matikind, humanity. 

ma7iy, numerous. 

maple, a species of tree. 

mar, to spoil. 

march, a frontier. 

mare, female of the horse. 

mark, a stroke, a sign, a coin. 

marrozv, soft matter in bones. 

marsh, a swamp. 

jnash, to crush. [forest trees. 

7?iast, a pole for sails, fruit of 

77iatch, an equal. 

77iate, a companion. [mal. 

77iaw, stomach in a lower ani- 

77tay, am able. [tive. 

77ie, personal pronoun, objec- 

77iead, a drink made from 

honey, a grass-field. 
77ieadow, a grass-field. 
77ieal, ground grain, a repast. 
77iea7t, to intend, vile, 
77ieat, flesh used as food. 
77ieed, reward. 

77ieet, to encounter, suitable. 
7nellow, fully ripe. 
77ielt, to make liquid. 
77iere, a. lake or pool. 
77ierj7iaid, a fabled sea female. 
77tesh, space between threads 

of a net. 
77iete, to measure. 
77ietJii7iks, it seems to me. 
77iew, a sea-fowl. 
77iickle, great. 
77iiddle, intervening. 
77iidge, a small fly or gnat. 
77tidriff, the diaphragm. 



46 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



midst ^ the middle, [child-birth. 

midwife, a woman assisting at 

might, power. 

7nild^ gentle. 

ijiildew, a kind of blight. 

milk, a white fluid used for 
food. 

milksop, an effeminate man. 

mince, to chop small. 

mind, the intellect. [sessive. 

mine, personal pronoun, pos- 

mingle, to mix. 

mi?mow, a very small fish. 

miss, to fail to hit. . 

mist^ fine rain. 

mistletoe, a parasitic plant. 

mite, a very small insect. 

mix, to mingle. [of pain. 

moan, a complaint, low sound 

mold, surface soil. 

molten, melted. [week. 

Monday, second day of the 

mo7iger, a dealer. [breed. 

mo7tgrel, an animal of mixed 

month, period of moon's revo- 
lution. 

mood, temper, 

moon, the earth's satellite. 

moor, a heath, extensive waste 
ground. 

7noot, to argue a case. 

more, greater. 

morn, first part of the day. 

morning, first part of the day, 

morrow, morning, the next day. 

7710SS, a low-growing plant. 

77iost, greatest. 

77iote, a particle of dust. 

moth, a species of insect. 

mother, a female parent. 

7nourn, to grieve. 

7nouse, a small rodent, [lips. 

7nouth, aperture between the 

mow, to cut with a scythe, a 
pile of hay or grain. 

mullei7i, a species of coarse 
plant. 



7nu77i, keep silent. 

mimible, to speak indistinctly. 

77iu7ich, to chew. 

77iurder, willful killing of 
another man. 

77turky, gloomy, [fleshy part. 

7nuscle, that which makes a 

must, a verb implying obliga- 
tion. 

77iutter, to speak in a low voice. 

77ty, personal pronoun, posses- 
sive. 

nail, scale at end of fingers or 

toes, a spike of metal. 
naked, uncovered, [is called. 
na77ie, that by which any thing 
nap, a short sleep. 
narrow, of little breadth. 
7taught, nothing. [church. 

7iave, middle or body of a 
navel, central point of the belly. 
7ieap, very low tide. 
near, close at hand. 
7ieat, cattle. 

7ieb, beak of a bird, the nose. 
7ieck, part of body joining 

head to trunk. 
need, necessity or want. 
needle, implement to sew with, 
7ieigh, to make a noise as a 

horse. 
7ieighbor, one who dwells near. 
neither, not either. 
nest, the home of a bird, 
7iet, a knotted implement to 

catch fish with. 
7iether, lower. 
nettle, a stinging plant. 
7iever, at no time. 
new, recent. 
newfangled, novel. 
newt, a kind of lizard. 
7iext, nearest. 

7iick7ia77ie, an additional name. 
7iigh, near. [sence. 

night, time of the sun's ab- 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



47 



nightingale, bird that sings by 

night. 
nightitiare^ a bad dream. 
nightshade , a poisonous plant. 
nimble, active. 
nine, numeral adjective. 
ninetee?i, numeral adjective. 
ninth, numeral adjective. 
ninety, numeral adjective. 
^^ly Ggg of 3- small insect. 
no^ a word of denial. 
7ionce, occasion. 
none, not one. 

nor, neither. [star. 

north, the direction of the pole 
nose, the organ of smell. 
nostril, one passage of the nose. 
not, a word of denial. 
nothing, absence of being. 
notwithsta^iding, nevertheless. 
710W, at the present time. 
noway, in no way. 
noways, in no way. 
nowhere, in no place. 
nowise, in no way. 
numb, deprived of feeling. 
nut, a fruit with a hard shell. 

oh, exclamation. 

oak, a species of tree. 

oakum, tow. 

oar^ an implement for rowing. 

oath, a solemn vow. 

oats, an edible grain. 

of, from or belonging to. 

off, away from.. 

offal, refuse. 

offsprijig, progeny. 

oft, frequently. 

ofte7i, frequently. 

old^ having age. 

on, upon, at, near. 

once, a single time, formerly. 

one, single. 

only^ single, singly. 

ooze^ soft mud. 

open^ unclosed. 



or, a conjunction. [trees. 

orchard, a collection of fruit 

ordeal, a. severe trial, a judg- 
ment. 

ore, native mineral. 

other, different. [mal, 

otter, a small, fur-bearing ani- 

ought, pasttense oiowe, should. 

our, personal pronoun, posses- 
sive. 

out, without, abroad. 

outcome, result. 

outlandish, foreign. 

outlet, a place of exit. 

outrufi, to surpass in running. 

outstretch, to stretch out. 

outward, towards the outside. 

ove7i, a furnace for baking 
bread. [face. 

over, above or along the sur- 

overcome, to subdue. 

overdo, to do too much. 

overdrive, to drive too fast. 

overflow, to flow over. [load. 

overlade, to put on too heavy a 

overleap, to leap over. 

overlie, to lie upon. 

overlive, to survive. 

overlook, to inspect, to neglect, 
to slight. 

overmatch, to surpass. 

07)ermuch, too much. [cheat. 

overreach, to reach beyond, to 

override, to ride over. [over. 

overru7i, to outrun, to spread 

oversee, to superintend. 

overset, to upset. [over. 

overshadow, to throw a shadow 

overspread, to spread over. 

overthrow , to upset, to demol- 
ish, [ly. 

overruuee7iing, thinking too high- 

overweigh, to outweigh. 

overwhehji, to bear down, to 
demolish. 

owe, to possess, to be in debt. 

owl, a night bird. 



48 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



own, possessed by one, to pos- 
sess, to admit. [den. 

ox, a ruminant, a beast of bur- 

oxlip, a plant now called cow- 
slip. 

paddock, a small inclosure. 

pap, food for infants. 

park, an inclosed ground. 

path, a track. 

peacock^ male of the pea-fowl. 

peat, a kind of turf. 

pebble, a small rounded stone. 

peevish, fretful. 

peewit, a species of bird. 

periwinkle, a species of ever- 
green plant. 

pig, the young of swine. 

pinfold, an inclosure for cattle. 

pipe, a tube used as a musical 
• instrument. [tempt, 

pish, an exclamation of con- 

pith, soft substance in stems 
of plants. 

plat, a patch of ground. 

play, sport, to make sport. 

plight, condition, a promise. 

plot, a small piece of ground. 

plucky to snatch. 

pond, a pool of standing water. 

pop, to make a sharp sound. 

pound, an inclosure for ani- 
mals. 

prance, to strut about, 

pra}tk, to adorn, 

prick, a sharp point or sting. 

pride, vanity. 

proud, haughty. [dain. 

pshaw, an exclamation of dis- 

pull, to draw, to pluck. 

[duck. 

quack, to make a noise like a 

quagmire, boggy ground. 

quail, to cower, [conscience. 

quabn, sudden illness, prick of 

quaver, to sing tremulously. 

quee7i^ a female sovereign. 

quell, to subdue. 



quench, to extinguish. 
quick^ living, moving lively. 
quicken, to make alive. 
quicksilver, a white, liquid 

metal. 
quiver^ to tremble. 
quoth, says or said. 

race, a trial of speed, [roof. 

rafter, a beam to support a 

rag, a shred of cloth. 

rain, water from the clouds. 

rake, a garden implement. 

rain, a male sheep. 

raijtble, to roam, 

ra7ik, coarse in growth. 

rankle, to fester. 

rat, a rodent species of vermin. 

rather, sooner. 

rattle, to make a din. 

raveji, a species of bird. 

raw, uncooked, sore. 

reach, to extend to, to gain. 

read, to interpret written words. 

ready, prepared, prompt, near. 

reap, to gather a crop. 

rear, to raise, 

reave, to take away. 

reck, to regard. 

reckon, to count, to esteem. 

red, a color. 

reed, a species of stiff grass. 

reek, to smoke. [to stagger. 

reel, spindle for yarn, to wind, 

rend, to tear or split. 

rennet, inner membrane of a 

calf's stomach. 
refit, a tear, a fissure. 
rest, repose. 

retch, to try to vomit, [chest. 
rib, one oif the bones of the 
rich, wealthy. 

rick, a pile of hay or wheat. 
rid, to free. 
riddle, a puzzle. 
ride, to be borne along. 
ridge, the top line of a long hilL 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



49 



right, straight, correct. 

rim, edge. [plants and fruit. 

rind, external covering of 

ring, a circle, to tinkle or sound. 

ripe^ mature. [of water. 

ripple, to wrinkle the surface 

rise, to ascend, 

roach, a species of fish. 

road^ a way for passengers. 

roa??i, to ramble. 

roar, to bellow. 

rod, a slender stick. 

roe, a female deer. [of land. 

rood, the holy cross, a measure 

roof, covering of a house. 

rook, a species of crow. 

room, space, a chamber. 

roost, place where fowls rest. 

root, part of the plant in the 

earth. 
rope, a thick, twisted cord. 
rot, to decay. 
rough, shaggy, harsh. 
row, a rank or series, to propel 

with oars. [a ship. 

rudder, implement for steering 
ruddy, reddish. 
rue, to be sorry. 
ruff, a kind of frill. 
ruffle, to wrinkle in disorder. 
rumble, to make a low, heavy 

sound. 
rumple, to crease in disorder. 
run, to move swiftly. 
rune, an old style of letter. 
rung, a round of a ladder. 
rush, to move violently, a 

coarse grass. 
rust, reddish coating on iron. 
rye, a species of edible grain. 

sad, sorrowful, [horse's back. 
saddle, seat strapped on a 
sail, canvas for propelling a 

ship, to propel by sails. 
sake, account. 
sallow, pale yellow color. 

E. E.-5. 



salt, a substance used for sea- 
soning. 

salve, ointment. 

same, of a like kind. 

sand, fine particles of stone. 

^•(2/^, the juice of plants, [week. 

Saturday, seventh day of the 

saw, a cutting implement with 
a toothed edge, a maxim. 

sawyer, one who saws. 

say, to speak. 

scab, crust over a sore. 

scale, a shell or flake, dish of a 
balance. [shoulders. 

scarf, an article of dress for the 

scathe, to injure. 

scatter, to disperse. 

score, twenty, a reckoning. 

scrub, to rub hard. 

scurf small flakes of skin. 

scythe, an implement for cut- 
ting grain. 

sea, a large lake. 

seal, a large marine animal. 

seam, a line of union. 

seamstress, a sewing woman. 

sedge, coarse swamp grass. 

see, to perceive. 

seed, a germ, descendants. 

seek, to look for. 

seem, suitable, to appear. 

seer, a prophet. 

seethe, to boil. 

seldom, rarely. 

self, one's own person. 

sell, to deliver in exchange. 

send, to cause to go. 

semiight, a week. 

sere, withered. 

set, to place. 

settle, to fix, 

seven, numeral adjective. 

seventeen, numeral adjective. 

seventh, numeral adjective. 

seventy, numeral adjective. 

sew, to fasten with needle and 
thread. 



50 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



shackle, to fetter the limbs. 
shad, a species of fish. 
shade, partial darkness. 
shadow, partial darkness. 
shaft, an arrow, a column. 
shag, rough hair, rough cloth. 
shake, to jolt, to tremble. 
shall, must. [grace. 

shajjie, consciousness of dis- 
shame-faced, modest. 
shank, lower part of the leg. 
shape, to form. 

share, a portion, part of a plow. 
sharp, cutting, severe, shrewd. 
shatter, to break into pieces. 
shave, to pare. [native. 

she, personal pronoun, nomi- 
sheaf, a bundle of grain. 
shear, to shave off or clip. 
sheath, a case for knife or 

sword. 
shed, to scatter, a hut. 
shee7i, splendor. [animal. 

sheep, a wool-bearing domestic 
sheet, a linen cloth, a sail, a 

sail-rope. 
shelf, a ledge. 
shell, outer covering. 
shelter, a place of refuge. 
shepherd, a keeper of sheep. 
sheriff, an officer of the law. 
shield, a defensive armor held 

on left arm. 
shift, change. 
shilling, a coin worth twelve 

pence. 
shimmer, to glitter faintly. 
shin, large bone of lower part 

of leg. 
shine, to gleam or be bright. 
ship, a large boat propelled 

with sails. 
shire, a county. 
shock, a concussion, offence. 
shoe, covering for the foot. 
shoe?naker, a maker of shoes. 
shoot, to let fly, to dart forward. 



shop, a place where goods are 

sold. [water. 

shore, a boundary adjoining 
short, curt, insufficient. [ing. 
shot, a missile, the act of shoot- 
shoulder, ioml at upper part of 

the arm. 
shove, to push. [ing dirt. 

shovel, an implement for mov- 
show, to exhibit, to teach, to 

prove. 
shower, a fall of rain. 
shred, a fragment. 
shrew, a scolding woman. 
shrewd, ^Nxok.^^, cunning, acute. 
shrimp, a small shell-fish. 
shrink, to contract, to recoil, 
shroud, garment for the dead. 
shrub, a dwarf tree, 
shun, to avoid. 

shut, to fasten a door, to close. 
shuttle, implement used in 

weaving. 
sick, ill, 

side, edge, region, party. 
sieve, a strainer, [fine particles. 
sift, to separate coarse from 
sigh, to take a long breath. 
sight, act of seeing. 
sill, base of a door or window. 
silly, innocent, foolish, [coin. 
silver, a white metal used for 
sin, wickedness. 
since, after that. [to bone. 

sinew, that which joins muscle 
sing, to utter musical sounds. 
singe, to scorch. 
sink, to go down. [ties. 

sip, to drink in small quanti- 
sit, to rest on the haunches. 
six, numeral adjective, 
sixteen, numeral adjective. 
sixth, numeral adjective, 
sixty, numeral adjective. 
skull, the bony case of the 

brain. 
slack, loose. 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



51 



slake, to quench. 

slay, to kill. [mer, 

sledge-hammer, a heavy ham- 

sleep, to slumber. 

sleeve, part of garment cover- 
ing the arm. 

slide, to glide. 

slime, viscous mire. 

sli7ig, to cast with a jerk. 

slink, to sneak away. 

slip, to slide. 

slit, to tear. 

sliver, a splinter. 

sloe, a small, wild plum. 

slop, liquid carelessly spilt. 

slope, an incline. 

sloth, laziness. 

slow, tardy. 

slumber, to sleep lightly. 

smack, flavor. 

small, little. 

smart, to feel pain. 

Senear, to daub. [odor. 

smell, an odor, to perceive an 

S7nelt, a kind of fish, 

smirch, to besmear. 

smirk, to simper. 

smite, to strike, to kill. 

smith, a worker in metals. 

smock, a shirt for a woman. 

smoke, vapor from a burning 
body. [smoke. 

smolder, to burn with much 

smooth, having an even surface. 

sfnother, to stifle. 

snail, a small insect with a 
spiral shell. 

snake, a serpent. 

snare, a noose, a trap. 

snatch, to seize quickly. 

sneak, to creep away slily. 

sneeze, to eject air forcibly 
through the nose. 

snood, a ribbon. [sleep. 

snore, to breathe hoarsely in 

snow, a form of frozen vapor. 

so^ thus. 



soak, to steep in a fluid. 
soap, a substance used for 

cleansing. 
sob, to shed tears convulsively. 
sod, turf. 

.?^/, yielding easily to pressure. 
some, a moderate number. 
son, 2l male child. 
song, a ballad. 

soon, quickly. [smoke. 

soot, a black deposit from 
sooth, truth. 

sop, food soaked in liquid. 
sore, wounded, a wound, 

grieved. 
sorrow, affliction. 
sorry, sore in mind, [in man. 
soul, seat of life and intellect 
sou7id, healthy, a shallow pas- 
sage of water. 
sour, having an acid taste. 
south, direction opposite the 

north star. 
sow, a female pig. [giri?- 

spade, an implement for dig- 
spati, to measure, a space of 

nine inches, [ing metal. 
spangle, a small plate of shin- 
spar, a bar, a mast, a kind of 

stone. 
spare, frugal, lean. 
sparky a small particle of fire. 
sparrow, a species of small 

bird. 
speak, to utter. 
spear, a lance. 
speck, a small spot. 
speech, language. 
speed, success, haste. 
spell, an incantation, to name 

letters of a word. 
spew, to vomit. [webs. 

spider, an insect that spins 
spill, to destroy, to pour out. 
spin, to draw into threads, to 

turn. [thread is spun. 

spindle, the pin from which a 



52 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Spinster, a woman who spins, a 
maiden. 

spire ^ a sprout, a steeple. 

spit, a skewer, prong on which 
meat is roasted, to throw 
out from the mouth. 

spittle, sahva. 

spoke, bar of a wheel. 

spoon, implement for supply- 
ing liquids. 

spot, a stain, a small space. 

spread, to scatter. 

sprig, a twig. 

spring, to leap, a leap. 

sprinkle, to scatter in small 
drops. 

sprit, a short mast. 

spur, a goad worn on the heel. 

spurn, to reject with disdain. 

spurt, to spout water. 

squeeze, to crush. 

stajff] a stick. 

stair, a step to climb by, 

stake, a strong stick, a post. 

stalk, a stem. 

stall, division of a stable, a 
table on which things are 
exposed for sale. 

stalwart, sturdy. 

stammer, to falter in speech. 

stamp, to tread heavily, to im- 
press coin. 

stand, to be stationary, to en- 
dure or be firm. 

staple, a loop of iron. 

star, a heavenly body. 

starboard, right side of a ship. 

stare, to gaze fixedly. 

stark, stiff. [dressed. 

stark-naked, quite naked or un- 

starling, a species of bird. 

start, to move suddenly. 

starve, to die of hunger. 

stave, part of a cask, part of a 
piece of music. 

stead, place of another. 

steadfast, firm. 



steady, stable. 
steal, to take by theft. 
stea7n, vapor. 

steed, a horse. [tools. 

steel, carbonized iron used for 
steep, precipitous. [building. 
steeple, a pointed tower of a 
steer, a young ox, [branch. 
stem, trunk of a tree, small 
stench, a bad smell. [pace. 
step, to set down the foot, a 
stepchild, relation of child by 

marriage. [marriage. 

stepfather, relation of father by 
stepmother, relation of mother 

by marriage. 
sterling, genuine coin. 
stern, severe. [estate. 

steward, superintendent of an 
stick, a staff, small branch of a 

tree. 
stif, rigid. 

stile, steps for climbing a fence. 
still, motionless. 
sting, to prick acutely. 
sti7tk, to. smell badly. 
stint, to limit. 
stir, to move, to rouse. 
stirrup, foot- rest for a saddle. 
stitch, pain in the side, space 

of a thread. 
stock, a post or stump. 
stone, a piece of rock, a gem. 
stool, a seat without a back. 
stoop, a flagon, to bend the 

body. 
stork, a species of wading bird. 
storm, a tempest. 
stotu, to arrange, to pack away. 
straddle, to stand or walk with 

legs apart. 
straggle, to stray. 
straight, direct, upright. 
strajid, beach of a lake or sea. 
straw, a stalk of grain. 
streajn, a current, to flow. 
strength, might. 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



53 



stretch, to draw out. 

strew, to scatter loosely. 

stride, to walk with long steps. 

strike, to hit. 

string, a thin cord. 

strip, to plunder, to take off. 

stroke, a blow, to rub gently. 

strong, vigorous. 

stub, the stump of a tree. 

stubborn, obstinate. 

stud, collection of horses, a 

large rivet. [tound. 

stu7i, to make a noise, to as- 
sty, an inclosure for swine. 
such, of like kind. 
suck, to draw in with the mouth, 
sulky, silently sullen. 
sully, to tarnish. 
sultry, hot and oppressive. 
summer, warmest season of 

year. [heat. 

sun, source of earth's light and 
Sunday, first day of the week. 
sunder, to separate. [supper. 
sup, to drink gradually, to eat 
swaddle, to swathe an infant. 
swallow, to receive into the 

stomach, a species of small 

bird. [bird. 

swan, a species of swimming 
sward, green turf. 
swarm, a cluster of bees or 

other insects. 
swart, black. 
swarthy, black. 
swath, a row of mown grass. 
swathe, to bandage. 
swear, to take an oath. 
sweat, moisture from the skin. 
sweep, to brush, to pass over 

rapidly. 
sweet, pleasing to the taste. 
sweetheart, a lover or mistress. 
swell, to grow larger, to rise 

into waves. 
swelter, to suffer from heat. 
sweT^e, to turn aside. 



swift, very rapid. 
swill, to drink greedily, [dizzy. 
swi7n, to move in water, to be 
swine, a pig. 

swittg, to sway to and fro. 
swinge, to beat. 
swoon, to faint. [motion. 

swoop, to descend with swift 
sword, a cutting weapon with a 
long blade. 

tail, an appendage. 

tale, a number, a narrative. 

tall, lofty. 

tame, made gentle. [tree. 

tar, substance from sap of pine 

tare, a species of plant. 

tarry, to linger. 

tart, sour. 

tattle., to talk idly, 

teach, to impart knowledge. 

teal, a species of water fowl. 

team, a set. [from the eye. 

tear, to rend, drop of liquid 

tease, to card wool, to plague. 

teat, a nipple. 

teem, to bring forth abundantly. 

tell, to narrate, to inform. 

te7i, numeral adjective. 

tenth, numeral adjective. 

tetter, a disease of the skin. 

than, conjunction implying 

comparison. 
thane, an English dignitary, 
thank, expression of good will. 
that, pronoun and conjunction. 
thatch, covering for a roof, to 

cover a roof. 
thaw, to melt, 

the, definite article. [tive. 

thee, personal pronoun, objec- 
theft, stealing. [therefore. 

then, at that time, afterward, 
thence, from that place or time. 
there, in that place. 
thews, sinews. 
thick, compact. 



54 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



thief, one who steals. 

thi^h, thick upper part of leg. 

thhnble, metal finger cover 
used in sewing. 

thin, slender. [sessive. 

thine^ personal pronoun, pos- 

thing, 2L.n inanimate object. 

think, to exercise the mind. 

third, numeral adjective. 

thirst, eager desire for drink. 

thirteen^ numeral adjective. 

thirtieth, numeral adjective. 

thirty, numeral adjective. 

this, a thing near at hand. 

thistle, a prickly plant. 

thither, to that place. 

thong, a strap of leather. 

thorn, sharp, woody spine on 
plant. 

thorough, complete. ' [native. 

thou, personal pronoun, nomi- 

though, on that condition, even 
if. 

thought, a notion. 

thousand, numeral adjective. 

thrash, to beat out grain from 
straw. 

thread, a thin, twisted cord, 

threat, a menace. 

three, numeral adjective. 

threshold, bottom of a door- 
way. 

thrice, numeral adjective. 

thrill, to pierce. 

throat, the gullet. 

throb, to beat violently. 

throe, a pang. 

throjig, a great crowd of people. 

throttle, the windpipe. 

through, from end to end. 

throw, to cast. 

thrush, a singing bird. 

thud, a dull sound. 

thumb, the short, thick finger. 

thimder, noise accompanying 
lightning. 

Thursday, fifth day of the week. 



thus, in this manner. 
thwack, to beat severely, [sive. 
thy, personal pronoun, posses- 
tide, a season, flowing of the 

sea. 
tidy, neat. 

tie, 2l fastening, to fasten. 
till, to cultivate. 
tilt, to be unsteady. 
timber, wood for building. 
time, season, period. 
titi, a white metal. 
tijider, that which kindles fires 

from a spark. • [harrow. 
tine, the spike of a fork or 
tingle, to thrill. [pans. 

ti7iker, a mender of kettles and 
tinkle, to jingle faintly. 
ti7iy, small. 
tip, the point. 
tire, to fatigue. 
tithe, a tenth part. 
titter, to giggle. [tion. 

to, preposition denoting direc- 
toad, a small amphibian. 
to-day, this day. [foot. 

toe, largest member at end of 
together, in same place, at 

same time. 
token, a mark, a sign. 
toll, a tax, to ring a bell. 
to-morrow , on the morn after 

this one, [ing and lifting, 
tongs, an implement for hold. 
tongue, the fleshy organ in the 

mouth. 
to-night, this night. 
too, more than, likewise. 
tool, an implement. 
tooth, small bone in mouth. 
top, the highest point, a toy. 
topsy-turvey, upside down. 
totter, to stagger. 
tough, tenacious. 
tow, to pull a vessel, coarse 

part of hemp. 
toward, in the direction of. 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



55 



towards, in the direction of. 

town, a large village. 

trade, occupation, commerce. 

trajnp, to tread. 

trample, to tread under foot. 

trap, a device to ensnare ani- 
mals. 

tray, a shallow vessel. 

tread, to walk. [size. 

tree, a woody plant of large 

trickle, to flow in drops. 

trim, to put in due order. 

trip, to move lightly, to stum- 
ble, to err. 

trough^ a long vessel for water. 

trow, think. [hostilities. 

truce, temporary cessation of 

true, certain, honest. 

trundle, to wheel. 

truth, that which is true. 

Tuesday, third day of the week. 

tumble, to fall. 

turf, sod, peat. 

tusk, a long tooth, 

twaiji, numeral adverb. 

tweak, to pull sharply. 

twelfth, numeral adjective. 

twelve, numeral adjective. 

twenty, numeral adjective. 

twice, numeral adverb. 

twig, small shoot of a tree. 

twilight, the faint light after 
sunset. 

twin, one of two born at birth. 

twine, to twist, a twisted thread. 

twinge, to cause sharp pain. 

twinkle, to shine with a quiver- 
ing light. 

twirl, to whirl. 

twist, to twine together. 

twit, to reproach. 

twitch, to pluck, to move sud- 
denly. 

twitter, to chirp as a bird. 

two, numeral adjective, 

[mal. 

udder, breast of a female mam- 



uncouih, awkward, odd. 
under, beneath. 
understand, to comprehend. 
unkempt, not combed. 
wiless, if not, except, [place. 
up^ aloft, towards a higher 
upbraid, to reproach, 
upon, on, on top of 
us, personal pronoun, objective. 
utmost, extreme. 
utter, to put forth. 

vane, a weather cock. 
vat, a large vessel for liquors. 

[gait. 
waddle, to walk with unwieldy 
wade, to walk through water. 
wain, a wagon. 
waist, middle part of the body. 
wake, to rouse from sleep. 
waken, to awake. 
walk, to move along on foot. 
wallet, a bag for necessaries. 
wallow, to roll oneself about. 
wa7i, pale. 
wander, to ramble. 
wane, to decrease. 
wanton, playful. 
war, a contest between states. 
ward, a guard, to watch. 
ware, merchandise. 
warlock, a wizard. 
warm, moderately hot. 
warn, to caution against. 
warp, the long thread of aloom. 
wart, a small excrescence. 
wary, cautious. 
was, past tense of verb to be. 
wash, to cleanse with water. 
wasp, a stinging insect. 
wassail, a revel. 
watch, a keeping guard, to 
observe. [ers, etc. 

water, the fluid in springs, riv- 
wattle, a twig, something 
wave, to fluctuate. [woven. 
waver, to vacillate. 



56 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



wax, substance of bee cells. 

way, a road, means, manner. 

wayward, perverse, [native. 

we, personal pronoun, nomi- 

weal, prosperity, welfare. 

wean, to accustom to. 

weapon, an implement for of- 
fense or defense. 

wear, to carry on the body, to 
rub away. 

weary, tired. 

weasel, a small, slender-bodied 
animal. [to change. 

weather, condition of the air as 

weave, to work into a fabric. 

web, that which is woven. 

wed, to marry. [ting. 

wedge, an implement for split- 

wedlock, marriage. [week. 

Wednesday, fourth day of the 

weed, a useless plant, a gar- 
ment. 

weeds, mourning garments. 

week, a period of seven days. 

ween, to suppose. 

weep, to shed tears, [to grain. 

weevil, small beetle destructive 

weigh, to balance, to consider. 

weir, a dam in a river. 

weird, fate. 

welcome, received gladly. 

welfare, prosperity. 

welkin, the sky. 

well, excellently, a deep spring. 

Welsh, pertaining to Wales, 

welter, to roll about. 

we7i, a fleshy tumor. 

wench, a young woman. 

wend, to go one's way. 

west, quarter where the sun 

wet, very moist, rainy, [sets. 

whale, largest of sea animals. 

wharf, a shore, generally for 
lading. 

■ze/y^^^/, an edible grain, [an axle. 

wheel, circular frame turning on 

wheeze, to breathe audibly. 



whelk, a small pimple. 
whelp, a puppy. 
when, at what time. 
whence, from what place. 
where, at which place. 
whet, to sharpen. 
whether, which of two. 
whey, part of milk separated 

from curd. 
which, relative pronoun. 
whiff, puff of wind or smoke. 
while, a space of time. 
whine, to utter a plaintive cry. 
whip, to flog. 
w hippie-tree, swing-bar to 

which traces are fastened. 
whisper, to speak very softly. 
whistle, to make a shrill sound 

with the lips. 
whit, a little bit. 
white, color of snow, very pale. 
whither, to what place. 
Whitsunday , seventh Sunday 

after Easter. 
whittle, to pare with a knife. 
who, relative pronoun. 
whole, healthy, entire. 
whorl, circle of leaves round 

a stem. 
why, on what account. 
wick, cluster of threads in a 

lamp or candle. 
wicked, evil. 
wicker, made of twigs. 
wide, broad. [band is dead. 
widow, a woman whose hus- 
wield, to manage, to use. 
wife, a married woman. 
wight, a creature, a person. 
wild, self-willed, untamed. 
wilderness, a wild place. 
wile, a trick. 
willful, obstinate. 
will, to desire, a wish. 
willow, a tree with pliant 

branches. 
win, to gain by contest. 



ENGLISH GLOSSARY. 



57 



wind, air in motion, to encircle. 

wink, to move the eyelids 
quickly. [grain. 

win7tow, to separate chaff from 

'Kjinso7ne, lovely. [the year. 

winter, the coldest season of 

wipe, to rub. 

wire, a thread of metal. 

wise, learned, manner. 

wish, to have a desire, [hay. 

wisp, a small bundle of straw or 

wistful, eager, attentive. 

wit, to know, knowledge. 

witch, a woman having magical 
power. [nearness. 

with, preposition denoting 

withdraw, to draw back. 

wither, to fade. 

withhold, to hold back. 

luithstand, to stand against. 

witness, testimony, one who 

wizen, to dry up. [testifies. 

woad, a plant used as a blue 

woe, grief, misery. [dye. 

wold, level, open country. 

wolf, a wild beast. 

woinmi, the feminine of man. 

womb, the place of conception. 

wonder, a strange thing. 

wont, accustomed. 

woo, to court, [growing trees. 

wood, timber, collection of 

woof, the threads crossing the 

wool, hair of sheep. [warp. 

word, utterance or sign ex- 
pressing thought. 

work, a labor, to labor, [society. 

world, the earth, the universe, 

worm, small, creeping animal. 

wormwood, a very bitter plant. 

worry, to harass, to tease. 

worse, comparative of bad. 

worship, respect, adoration. 

wort, a species of plant.- 

worthy equal in value to, de- 

wound, a hurt. [serving. 

wrangle, to dispute noisily. 



wrap, to infold. 
wrath, anger. 

wreak, to revenge. [ruin. 

wreck, destruction, to go to 
wren, species of small bird. 
wre7ich, to twist. [cibly. 

wrest, to distort, to snatch for- 
wrestle, to "contend by grap- 
wretch, an outcast. [pling. 
wriggle, to move along by 

twisting the body. 
Wright, a workman. 
writig, to twist. [surface. 

wrinkle, a small ridge on a 
wrist, the joint which turns the 
write, to inscribe. [hand. 

writhe, to twist to and fro. 
wrong, unjust, bad. 
wroth, angry. 

yard, an inclosed space. 
yarn, spun thread. 
yawn, to gape. [tive. 

ye, personal pronoun, nomina- 
yea, verily. [revolution. 

year, time of earth's annual 
yearn, to be eager for. 
yeast, a preparation which 
yell, to howl. [raises dough. 
yellow, a golden color, [bird. 
yellow-hammer, a yellow song- 
yelp, to bark shrilly. 
yeoma7i, a man of small estate. 
yes, a word of affirmation. 
yesterday, the day last past. 
yet, moreover, still. 
yew, an evergreen tree. 
yield, to grant, to submit. 
yoke, a frame for joining oxen. 
yolk, the yellow part of an ^"g^. 
yo7i, at a distance. 
yore, long ago. [native. 

you, personal pronoun, nomi- 
you7ig, new to life. [sessive. 
your, personal pronoun, pos- 
youth, early life. 
yule, Christmas. 



58 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Glossary of Norman French Words, Largely from the 
Latin, and Used Before 1300. 



abandon, to give up. 
abash, to bring low, 
abate, to beat down. 
abbess, the mother of an abbey. 
abbey, a rehgious house. 
abridge, to shorten. 
abstinence, a refraining from. 
accord, to grant, to agree. 
accost, to address. 
account, to reckon. 
accuse, to lay to one's charge. 
acquaint, to make known. 
acquit, to set free. 
adamant, a diamond. 
ada?nantine, like adamant. 
adjourn, to postpojne. 
adjudge, to assign. 
achnira/, commander of a fleet. 
advance, to go forward. 
advanceinejit, state of going 
advantage, profit. [forward. 
adventure, an accident, enter- 
adversity, misfortune, [prise. 
advice, counsel. 
advise, to counsel. 
affairs, business. 
affiance, marriage contract. 
age, period of time, maturity. 
air, the atmosphere. 
alarm, to call to arms. 
alas, exclamation expressing 

sorrow. 
alien, strange, a stranger. 
alliance, a compact. 
ally, to bind together. 
altar, a place for sacrifice. 
ambassador, a messenger. 
amble, to go between a walk 

and a trot. 
ame7td, to free from faults. 
amendment, the act of freeing 

from faults. 
amount, to mount up to. 



ancestor, a forefather. 

anchor, an iron implement to 
hold a ship. 

anguish, great pain. 

anise, a medicinal herb. 

an7ioy, to vex. [course to. 

appeal, to call upon, having re- 

appertain, to belong. 

appoint, to fix. 

approve, to consent, to praise. 

appurtenance^ that which be- 
longs, [month. 

April, name of the fourth 

archer, 3. bowman. 

arithmetic, science of numbers. 

arm, to furnish with weapons. 

annor, defensive arms or dress. 

ari7is, weapons. [men. 

army, large body of armed 

array, to set in order, prepara- 

art, skill. [tion. 

article, a small item, part of 

assail, to attack. [speech. 

assault, an attack. 

assay, a test. 

assejnbly, a gathering. 

assent, to agree, compliance. 

assign, to allot. 

assizes, courts of justice. 

attorney, a lawyer. [sister. 

au7tt, a father's or mother's 

authe?ttic, genuine. 

avow, to confess. 

await, to wait for. 

[man. 

bachelor, a young, unmarried 

bailiff, a deputy. 

ball, a dance, a spherical body. 

balm, an aromatic plant. 

banner, a flag. 

baptize, to christen by dipping. 

bar, a rail, a stiiT rod. 

barbacan, an outwork of a fort. 



FRENCH GLOSSARY. 



59 



barge, a sort of boat. 

baron, a title of dignity. 
baronage, estate of a baron. 
barrel, a wooden cask. 
basin, a wide, open vessel. 
bastard, an illegitimate child. 
battle, a combat. 
bay, reddish brown, a tree, an 

inlet, to bark as a dog, in 
beast, an animal. [defiance. 
beef, an ox, the flesh of an ox, 
beguile, to deceive, to amuse. 
belfry, a. watch tower, tower for 
benison, blessing. [a bell. 

besiege, to surround with an 
betray, to act as traitor, [army. 
bigamy, a marriage to two 
blame, to censure. [wives. 

boil, to bubble up. 
bounty, liberality. 
branch, bough of a tree. 
bray, to bruise, to make a sound 
brief, short, [as an ass. 

brooch, an ornament fastened 

with a pin. 
buckler, a kind of shield. 
bugle, a horn* 

burgess, a citizen. [rel. 

butt, an end, thrust, large bar- 
buzzard, a species of carrion 

bird. 

cabinet, a small room, a closet. 
cable, a strong rope, [animals. 
cage, an inclosure for birds or 
camel, a draught animal of the 
ca7ion, an ordinance, [desert, 
cap, covering for the head. 
carol, a song. [articles. 

carpenter, a maker of wooden 
case, an event, a cover. 
catch, to seize, 
cattle, domestic animals. 
cause, that which produces an 
certain, sure. [effect. 

chain, a series of metal links, 
chair, a movable seat. 



chalice, a cup. 

challenge, a claim, a defiance. 

chamberlain, one who has care 

chaj7iber, a room, [of rooms. 

champion, a warrior. 

chance, what befalls, an event. 

chancellor, a director of chan- 
cery, [dicature. 

chancery, a high court of ju- 

chajige, to alter. 

chapel, a small church. 

chapter, division of a book, a 

charge, to burden. [synod. 

charity, love, almsgiving. 

charm, a song, a spell. 

charter, a grant. 

chase, to pursue. 

chaste, pure. [rect. 

chasten, to make pure, to cor- 

chastise^ to punish. 

chastisement, punishment. 

chastity, virtue. 

checker, to mark with squares. 

cheer, expression, entertain- 

chemise, a lady's shift, [ment. 

cherry, a species of fruit tree. 

chess, the game of the kings. 

chief, head, leader. [der. 

chieftain, head man, comman- 

chime, a harmonious sound. 

chisel, a cutting tool. 

chivalry, knighthood. [tic. 

cipher, the figure o in arithme- 

citation, a summons, a quota- 

«"/^, to summon, to quote, [tion. 

city, large town or community. 

clause, a sentence, part of a 

clear, distinct, pure, [writing. 

clergy, body of ministers. 

clerk, a clergyman, a scholar. 

cloak, a loose upper garment. 

close, shut up, to shut in. 

coat, an outer garment. 

cock, a male fowl. 

coffer, a chest for money. 

collar, something worn round 
the neck. 



6o 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



color, a tint, an appearance. 

columbine , a flowering plant. 

comet, a star with hair-like tail. 

cojjifort, to cheer. 

com7Jiandment, an order. 

comjnencement, a beginning. 

common, usual, public. 

company, an assembly, a troop. 

compass, a circle, a limit. 

cojiceive, to be pregnant, to 
think. [dinals. 

conclave, an assembly of car- 

coticubine, a paramour. 

condiiioJt,st2iiQ., rank, proposal. 

confess, to acknowledge fully. 

confessor, one who receives 

confirm, to assure, [confession. 

conjure^ to implore solemnly. 

conquer, to subdue. 

consciejice, consciousness of 
good or bad. 

coJise7it, to agree to. 

constable, a peace officer. 

contain, to include. 

continually, always, [longed. 

continuajice, that which is pro- 

contrary, opposite. [talk. 

converse, to associate with, to 

cordial, hearty, sincere. 

corner, an angle. 

corpse, a dead body. 

corse, a dead body. 

counsel, advice. 

count, a title of rank. 

countenance, appearance, face. 

countess, wife of a count. 

country, a rural district, a re- 
gion, [shire. 

county, a count's province, a 

couple, two joined together. 

courage, bravery. 

courageous, brave. 

course, a running, a track. 

court, an inclosed space. 

courtesy, politeness. 

cousin, a near relative. 

covenant, an agreement. 



cover, to hide, to spread over. 

covering, that which spreads 
over, 

covert, a place of shelter. 

covet, to desire eagerly. 

covetous, eagerly desirous. 

coward, a man without cour- 

creed, a belief. [s-ge. 

crevice, a crack. [Passion. 

rr^j-^, the instrument of the 

crown, a diadem. 

crucifix, a small cross. 

cruel, hard-hearted. 

rry, to call, to bawl. 

crystal, clear glass, [ful wife. 

cuckold, a man with an unfaith- 

cumber, to hinder. 

cure, care, attention. 

curfew, the bell rung for cov- 
ering fires. 

curtain, a hanging cloth. 

custom, usage. 

dainty, a delicacy, pleasant to 

dajnage, injury, loss, [the taste. 

dame, a lady. 

damsel, a girl. [steps. 

dance, to trip with measured 

danger, penalty, risk, insecu- 
rity, [risk. 

dangerous, that which involves 

date, an epoch, fruit of the 

daunt, to frighten, [palm tree. 

dean, an official of a church 
or college. [some. 

debonair, courteous, hand- 

debt, that which is due. 

debtor, one who owes. 

deceive, to cheat. 

decree, a decision, a law. 

default, failure. 

defence, protection. 

defe7id, to ward off. 

defia7ice, a. challenge. 

defy, to challenge. 

degree, rank, extent. 

deign, to think worthy. 



FRENCH GLOSSARY. 



6i 



delay, a putting off. 
delicious, very pleasing. 
delight, great pleasure, to 
deliver, to set free. [please. 
delivery, that which is given 

up. 
de77ia7id, to ask, to require. 
demean^ to behave, to lower. 
deinure^ staid, grave. 
deTiy, to refuse. 
depart, to part from, to die. 
depose, to degrade, to remove 

from a throne. 
depute, to appoint as agent. 
descry, to make out. 
desert^ a wilderness, merit. 
desire, to long for. 
desirous, anxious. 
despise, to have contempt for. 
despite, hatred. 
despoil, to plunder. 
destroy, to overthrow. 
devise, to contrive, to bequeath. 
devoir, duty. 

devout, devoted to religion. 
diadem, a crown. [two. 

dialogue, a. discourse between 
diamond, a very hard, brilliant 

stone. [assembly. 

diet, an allowance of food, an 
digtiity, worth or rank. 
discharge, to acquit, to unload. 
disciple, a learner, a follower. 
discipline, a teaching. 
disco7nfit, to defeat. 
discord, without agreement. 
discover, to reveal. 
disguise, to counterfeit. 
dishonor, shame. [^-g^- 

dismay, to terrify, to discour- 
dismember, to tear limb from 
dispense, to weigh out. [limb. 
disposition, arrangement, ten- 
dispute, to argue. [dency. 

distance, remoteness. 
distinction, honor. 
distress, great pain, misfortune. 



disturb, to disquiet, to inter- 
ditty, a song. [rupt. 

diverse, different. 
divinity, God. 

dolphin, a large sea animal. 
domicile, a house, an abode. 
double, two-fold. 
doubt, to be uncertain. 
dozen, twelve. [pent. 

dragon, a fabulous winged ser- 
dress, to arrange, to deck. 
dromedary, a camel with one 
hump. [ity. 

duke, a leader, a title of nobil- 
duty, obligatory service. 

eager, keen, desirous. 

eagle, a large bird of prey. [ped. 

elephant, the largest quadru- 

ejnbrace, to take in the arms. 

einerald, a gem of a green color. 

emperor, ruler of an empire. 

empire, dominion, a govern- 
ment. 

empress, wife of an emperor. 

e?ichanter, one who charms by 
sorcery. 

erichajitment, sorcery. 

enctu7tber, to impede, to load. 

ene7ny, a foe. 

engine, a skillful contrivance. 

e7iha7tce, to increase. 

enter, to go into. [animal. 

e7ttrails, inward parts of an 

e7iveno77t, to poison. 

envious, maliciously grudging. 

e7ivy, malicious grudging. 

epistle, 3. letter. 

er77tine, a small, fur-bearing 
animal. 

escape^ to flee. 

espousal, betrothal. 

espy, to catch sight of. 

estate, condition, rank. [pel. 

evangelist, a writer of the gos- 

exa7nple, a pattern. 

exile, banishment. 



62 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



fable, fictitious story with 
moral. [nance. 

face, the front, the counte- 

fail, to be baffled. 

faint, feeble. 

fairy, enchantment. 

faith, belief 

falcon, a bird of prey. 

false, untrue. 

fame, renown. 

favor, kindliness, grace. 

feast, a festival. 

feeble, weak. 

feign, to pretend. 

felon, a wicked person. 

felony, wickedness. 

fever, a disease accompanied 
with great heat of body. 

fierce, violent. 

fig, 3. species of fruit. 

figure, something made, an 
appearance. 

fine, exquisite, complete, thin. 

firmament, the heavens. 

fiank, the side. 

fiour, fine meal. 

fiower, a bloom, 

flute, a musical pipe. 

foil, to disappoint, to defeat. 

folly, foolishness. 

fool, a silly person. 

foolhardy, reckless as a fool. 

forest, a. wooded tract of land. 

form, shape. 

fortress, a small fort, [order. 

friar, member of a religious 

front, the forehead. 

fruit, produce of the earth. 

fur, short hair of animals. 

furred, covered with fur. 

fustian, a kind of coarse cloth. 

gage, a pledge. [fast. 

gallop, to ride a horse very 
gaol, a cage, a prison. 
garde?t, an inclosure. 
garland, a wreath. 



garment, a robe, a coat. 
gar?tet, a reddish-brown gem. 
garret, the top room of a house. 
garrison, soldiers defending a 
gay, lively. [fort. 

general, relating to a genus. 
genteel, well bred, graceful. 
gentle, mild. 

gentlema7i, a well bred man. 
giant, a man of great size. 
ginger, root of a species of 
glaive, a sword. [plant. 

glory, renown. 
glorious, famous. 
glutton, a voracious eater. 
gluttony, excessive eating. 
gout, a disease. 
govern, to direct, to rule. 
governor, one who rules. 
grace, favor, pardon, [bread. 
grain, an edible seed used for 
gra7idame, a grandmother. 
grandsire, a grandfather. 
grant, to allow, to bestow. 
gravel, small stones. 
grief, great sorrow. 
grieve, to afflict, to mourn, 
grievance, an affliction, a 
grudge, to grumble, [wrong. 
guile, cunning, deceit. 
guise, way, manner, 

habit, custom, dress. 
hardiness, strength, 
hardy, stout, brave, [armor. 
harness, equipment for a horse, 
hauberk, a coat of ringed mail. 
haughtiness, arrogance. 
haicghty, proud. 
haunch, the hip. 
hazard, chance, risk. 
heir, one who inherits property, 
herb, a plant with succulent 
heresy, wicked error, [stem. 
heritage, an inheritance, 
hermit, one who lives in soli- 
tude. 



FRENCH GLOSSARY. 



63 



homage, the submission to a 

>^^;^^i-/, honorable, just. [lord. 

honor, excellence. [pledge. 

hostage, a person given as a 

hostel, an inn. 

hostess, mistress of an inn. 

hujjible, meek, modest. 

hurl, to throw forcibly. 

hurt, to injure. 

hypocrite, a pretender to virtue. 

idol, image of a god. 
idolatry, worship of idols. 
igftorance, without knowledge. 
image, a likeness, a figure. 
impatient, not patient. 
imprison, to put in prison. 
improve, to ma'kehetter. [ilesh. 
incarnation, embodiment in 
incense, odor of burned spices. 
incest, impurity. 
incliiie, to lean towards. 
increase, to grow. 
indifferent, impartial, neutral. 
inherit, to possess as an heir. 
iniquity, wickedness. 
ink, a liquid used for writing. 
iftguest, a judicial inquiry. 
inquire, to search into, to ask. 
intend, to fix the mind upon. 
intent, design. 
ire, anger. 
isle, an island. 
issue^ progeny, result. 

jangle, to sound discordantly. 
jasper, a precious stone. 
jay, a species of bird. 
jealous, suspicious of rivalry. 
jealousy, a feeling of rivalry. 
jest, a joke. 

Jew, a Hebrew. [nament. 

jewel, a precious stone, an or- 
join, to connect. 
jolly, merry, fine. 
journey, a day's travel, a tour. 
joust, to encounter on horse- 
joy, gladness. [back. 



joyful, full of joy. 
joyous, state of being happy. 
judge, one who decides a 
judgment, a decision, [cause. 
juggler, ono. who is skilled in 
sleight of hand, [ception. 
jugglery, sleight of hand, de- 
jttstice, uprightness, a judge. 

[of hounds. 
kenfiel, a house for dogs, pack 

labor, toil. 

lace, a cord, plaited thread. 
lamp, a vessel for giving light. 
lamprey, a species of fish. 
lance, a shaft of wood with a 
language, speech, [spear head. 
lantern, a case for carrying a 

a light. 
lard, the melted fat of swine. 
larder, place in which meat is 
large, great. [kept. 

largely, in a great manner. 
largeness, vastness. 
largess, a donation. [mans. 
Latin, pertaining to the Ro- 
launch, to hurl. 
lavender, an oderiferous plant. 
lay, a song, pertaining to the 
lecher, a lustful person, [laity. 
lechery, lust. 
legate, an ambassador. 
legion, a large body of soldiers. 
leisure, free time. [plant. 

lentil, a leguminous edible 
leopard, a wild beast of the cat 

family. [a task. 

lesson, a reading of scripture, 
letter, a character, a written 

message. 
lever, a bar for raising weights. 
licorice, a sweet root used as 

medicine. 
lineage, race, family, [family. 
lion, a wild beast of the cat 
liquor, a liquid, strong drink. 
litany, a form of prayer. 



64 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



lizard, a species of four-footed 
reptile. 

[of spice. 

mace ^^2^ kind of club, a kind 

mackerel, a species of sea-fish. 

madam, a lady. 

7naintai)i, to keep up. 

majesty, grandeur. 

malady, disease. 

male, masculine. 

malice, ill will, spite. 

malicious, spiteful. 

malison, a curse. 

mandrake, a narcotic plant. 

majtger, a feeding trough. 

maimer, way, fashion, 

ma?ttle, a cloak. 

marble, a kind of stone. 

mariner, a sailor. [dize. 

market, a place of merchan- 

marriage, union as husband 
and wife. 

marry, to join in marriage. 

marshal, a master of horse, a 

7narvel, a wonder. [title. 

mason, a worker in stone. 

mass, a lump of matter, quan- 
tity. 

master, a superior. 

mastery, lordship, dominion. 

matins, morning prayers. 

matter, substance, pus. [town. 

mayor, chief magistrate of a 

measure, extent, degree, mod- 
eration, meter. 

meddle, to interfere. 

medicine, a remedy for disease. 

medley, a confused mass, a 

melody, a tune. [mixture. 

jnember, a limb, one of a com- 
munity. 

memory, remembrance. 

fnenace, a threat. [repair. 

mend, to remove a fault, to 

mercer, a dealer in silks and 

merchant, a trader, [woolens. 

mercury, quicksilver. 



mercy, favor, clemency. 

merit, excellence, desert. 

7ness, a dish of meat, a portion. 

message, a communication. 

fnessenger, bearer of a mes- 
sage. 

metal, a solid substance. 

minister, a servant. 

minstrel, a musical performer. 

miracle, a wonder, 

mirror, a looking-glass. 

misadventure, ill luck. 

mischance, ill luck, 

mischief, damage, evil. 

molest, to disturb, [piece, 

morsel, a mouthful, a small 

mortar, a cement of lime, sand, 
and water, 

mould, a model, [land. 

motmtain, a high elevation of 

mutton, flesh of sheep. 

myrrh, a bitter, aromatic gum. 

natio?t, a race of people. 
nativity, place of birth. 
7iatural, pertaining to nature. 
nature, kind, disposition. 
7iavy, a fleet of ships. [son, 
7iephe'w, a brother's or sister's 
nice, fastidious, delicious. 
niece, daughter of a brother or 
7toble, illustrious, [sister. 

noise, a troublesome sound. 
7iote, a mark, a sign. 
nourish, to feed or bring up. 
7iu77iber, a unit in counting, a 
quantity. [infant, 

nurse, one who nourishes an 
nurture, nourishment, educa- 

[tion. 
obedience, submission to duty. 
obedient, submissive, 
oblige, to constrain, to favor. 
observance, having regard for. 
observe, to heed, to keep. 
ocean, the main sea, 
odor, scent, perfume. 



FRENCH GLOSSARY. 



6s 



office, duty, act of worship. 

oil, a greasy liquid, 

omtitient, a salve. [fruit. 

olive, an oil-yielding tree or its 

ordain, to set in order. 

order, arrangement, system. 

orison^ a prayer. [bird. 

ostrich, a very large running 

outrage, excessive violence. 

oyster, a species of edible shell- 

[fish. 

pace, a step, a gait. 

page, one side of the leaf of a 
book. [liquids. 

pail, an open vessel for 

pain, suffering. 

pai?it, to color, to describe. 

paintifig, a colored picture. 

pair, two like things. 

palace, a residence for royalty. 

palate, roof of the mouth, 
taste. 

palfrey, a lady's riding-horse. 

palm, inner part of the hand, 
species of tree, 

palmer, one who has visited 
Palestine. 

pane, a patch, a plate of glass. 

pannier, a bread basket. 

paradise, garden of Eden, 

paramour, a lover, [heaven. 

parchment, dressed sheep or 
goat skin for writing. 

parliai7ient, a deliberative as- 
sembly, [tion, 

parlor, a room for conversa- 

p arson, a parish preacher. 

part, a portion, 

part7ier, one who shares, 

party, a faction, an assembly. 

pass, to walk onward. 

passage, a journey. 

passion, suffering, rage. 

pasty, a meat pie, 

patience, quiet endurance. 

patriarch, a chief father. 

patron, a protector. 
E. E.— 6. 



pavement, a stone floor. 

pavilion, a tent. 

pay, to discharge a debt. 

paynim, a pagan. 

peace, quiet, freedom from war. 

peacock, a gallinacious bird 
with fine plumage. [ter. 

pearl, a gem found in an oys- 

peep, to chirp like a chicken. 

peer, an equal, a nobleman, 

pelicati, a large water fowl. 

pefiance, self-punishment, 

pe7icil, a small brush for paint- 

penitetice, repentance, [ing. 

people, a nation, the populace. 

peradventure, perhaps. 

perceive, to comprehend, 

perch, seat for a bird, a meas- 
ure, a fish, [plete. 

perfection, that which is com- 

Peril, danger. 

perish, to come to naught. 

person, an individual, [science. 

philosophy, love of wisdom, 

physicia7i, one who heals dis- 

physiognomy, the face, [eases. 

pickaxe, a tool for digging. 

piece, a portion, a single thing. 

piecemeal, by portions at a 
time. 

pierce, to thrust through. 

pilgrim, a wanderer, [grim. 

pilgrimage, journey by a pil- 

pillage, plunder. 

pillar, a column. 

piteous, sympathetic. 

pity, mercy. 

place, space, a town. 

plain, flat, evident. 

plai7it, a lament, 

platiet, a wandering star. 

plate, thin piece of metal, flat 

plead, to urge. [dish. 

plenteous, abundant. 

plenty, abundance. [bird. 

plover, a species of wading 

pocket, a small pouch. 



66 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



point, a sharp end, 

poison, a deadly draught. 

poor, needy, weak. 

poplar^ a species of large tree. 

porch, a covered entrance.- 

porter, a carrier, a gate-keeper. 

portray, to depict. 

pose, a position. 

post, a stake set in the ground. 

posterji, a back door, a small 

potion, a drink. [back gate. 

pottage, thick soup. 

poverty, state of being poor. 

powder, dust. 

power, might, rule. 

praise, commendation. 

pray, to ask earnestly. 

preach, to pronounce a sacred 
discourse. 

preacher, one who preaches. 

precious, valuable. 

prelate, a bishop. 

present, in view, at this time. 

press, to squeeze. [granted. 

presumption, act of taking for 

prey, booty. 

price, value. [flower. 

primrose, a species of spring 

prince, a chief, the son of a 

principal, chief. [king. 

prior, head of a priory. 

prioress, head of a convent. 

priory, a monastery or con- 
vent, [ment. 

prison, a place of confine- 

privilege, a peculiar advan- 

privity, privacy. [tage. 

prize, that which is won. 

procession, a body of persons 
marching in regular order. 

procure, to obtain. [tion. 

profession, an open declara- 

proffer, to offer. 

profound, deep. 

proof, a. test, evidence. 

proper, one's own, suitable, 
comely. 



prophecy, a prediction. 
prophet, one who predicts. 
prosperity, success. 
prove, to test, to demonstrate. 
provender, dry food for beasts. 
prowess, courage, [strument. 
psaltery, a kind of stringed in- 
pullet, a young hen. 
purblind, nearly blind. 
purchase, to buy. 
pure, unmixed, real, chaste. 
puYgatory, a place for purifi- 
cation, [pure. 
purity, condition of being 
purple, a very dark red color. 
purpose, intention. 
purse, a small bag for money. 
purvey, to provide. 
push, to drive forward. 

quail, a migratory bird. 
quaint, odd. [title. 

quality, property, condition, 
quarrel, a dispute. 
quarter, a fourth part. 
quash, to crush. 
quilt, a bed cover. 
quit, freed. 
quite, entirely. 
quittance, a discharge. 
quiver, a case for arrows. 
quotidian, daily. 

rage, intense anger. 
rancor, intense hatred. 
rafidoni, said or done at hazard. 
range, to set in rows, to rove. 
ra?isom, price paid for release. 
ravage, to devastate. 
rave, to rage. 

razor, knife used for shaving. 
reason, faculty of the mind, 

cause, justice. 
rebel, opposing authority. 
rebuke, to reprove. 
recluse^ secluded. 
recoil, to start back. 



FRENCH GLOSSARY. 



67 



record, to register. [quest. 

refuse, to reject, to deny a re- 

region, a district, a country. 

rehearse^ to repeat. 

reign, rule. 

release, to set free. 

relic, a memorial. 

relief, succor. 

relieve, to help. 

religion, piety. 

remedy, that which restores. 

remission, a pardoning. 

remnant, a fragment. 

renown, celebrity. [of land. 

rent, annual payment for use 

repent, to feel sorrow for an act. 

repentant, feeling sorrow for. 

reply, to answer. 

resound, to sound again. 

restore, to return. [back. 

return^ to come back, to give 

reveretice, veneration. 

reward, to honor. 

ribald, a licentious person. 

ribaldry, low talk. 

riches, wealth. 

riot, tumult. 

river, a large, flowing stream. 

roast, to cook meat before a 

rob, to plunder. [fire. 

robber, a thief. 

robbery, theft. 

robe, a garment. 

r*?^;^, a large mass of stone. 

roll, to revolve. 

romance, a fictitious narrative. 

r^*/.?, routine, repetition. 

round, circular, spherical. 

route, a. way, a line of march. 

ruby, a gem of a dark red color. 

rule, a maxim, government. 

rus/i, to move forward vio- 

russet, reddish brown, [lently, 

sable, a fur-bearing animal. 
sacrament, a religious rite, the 
sacred, holy. [eucharist. 



sacrifice, an offering to a god. 

saffron, a species of plant. 

saint, a holy man. 

salnion, a species of fish. 

salvation, preservation. 

sample, a pattern. 

sapphire, a precious stone. 

sauce, a liquid seasoning for 

savage, wild. [food. 

^^^•z/^, to rescue. 

savor, odor, taste. 

scabbard, a sword sheath. 

scaffold, a temporary platform. 

scald, to burn with hot liquid. 

scandal, opprobrious censure. 

scarce, not plentiful. 

scarcely, hardly. ' 

scarcity, poverty. 

scarlet, a bright red color. 

scepter, a mark of regal au- 
thority, [planting. 

scio7t, a shoot, a cutting for 

scorn, disdain. 

scorpion, a stinging insect. 

scourge, a whip. [ment. 

scroll, a roll of paper or parch- 

season, proper time, [ordinal). 

second, next after first (only 

seignior, a title of honor. 

seize, to lay hold of. 

se7nblance, an appearance. 

senate, a council of elders. 

senator, a member of the 

sentence, an opinion, [senate. 

sepulcher, a tomb. 

sergeant, a lawyer of the high- 
est rank. [Scripture text. 

sermon, a discourse on a 

servant, one who attends on 
another. 

serve, to attend on another. 

service, attendance on others. 

sig7i, a mark. 

signify, to indicate. 

sile7ice, stillness. 

si77io7iy, crime of trafficking in 
church preferments. 



68 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



simple, single, silly. [dress. 

sir, a respectful title of ad- 

sire, a. respectful title of ad- 
dress. 

skirmish, an irregular fight. 

slander, calumny. 

socket, a hollow for insertion. 

soil, ground, country. 

sojourn, to dwell. 

solace, comfort. 

sole, alone, a kind of fish. 

sorcery, divination. [ard. 

sot, a stupid fellow, a drunk- 

soup, a drink made by boiling 

sovereign, supreme. [meat. 

space, room. 

special, distinctive. 

spice, an aromatic vegetable 
for seasoning. 

spirit, breath, the soul, liveli- 
ness, a spiritous liquor. 

spoil, to plunder. 

sponge, an animal frame-work 
remarkable for sucking 
up water. 

spouse, a husband or wife. 

spy, to discover. 

squire, an official of the law. 

squirrel, a small rodent with 
bushy tail. 

stable, a stall for horses, firm. 

stage, a platform, place of rest 
on a journey. 

stanch, to stop a flow of 
blood. 

standard, an ensign, a rule. 

state, a position, a province. 

stay, to remain. 

store, provision. [floor. 

story, a narrative, height of one 

strait, strict, narrow. 

strange, foreign, odd. 

strangle, to choke. 

strife, contention. [learn. 

study, application in order to 

sturdy, resolute, stout. [fish. 

sturgeon, a species of large 



subject, under the power of 
another. 

subsidy, assistance in money. 

succor, to help. 

sudden, unexpected, hasty. 

sue, to prosecute at law. 

suffer, to endure. 

siffrance, endurance. 

sugar, the substance obtained 
from sugar cane. 

sum, amount. [authority. 

summon, to cite or call with 

supper, the evening meal. 

sicpple, pliant. 

surgeon, a medical operator. 

surgery, the science of anat- 
omy and physiology. 

suspend, to hang beneath or 

sustain, to hold up. [from. 

sustenance, support. 

tabernacle, a tent used as a 
place of worship. 

table, a smooth board sup- 
ported on legs. 

tabor, a small drum. 

tailor, a maker of clothes. 

talent, a sum of money, ability. 

tap, to strike gently, [tongue. 

taste, to perceive by touch of 

tavern, an inn. [erty. 

tax, a rate imposed on prop- 

temper, to moderate. 

tempest, a violent storm. 

temple, part of skull above 
cheek bone. 

/^;;z/^/, to put to trial, [tempted. 

temptation, the act of being 

tempter, one who tempts. 

tender, delicate, to offer, a small 

te7ior, purport. [vessel. 

tent, a pavilion, heed. 

term, a limited period. 

testament, a solemn declara- 
tion in writing. 

throne, a royal seat. 

thyme, a fragrant plant. 



FRENCH GLOSSARY. 



69 



tiger, a savage animal of the 

cat family. 
toil, labor, a snare. 
tomb, a grave. 
topaz, a precious stone. 
torch, a light. 

torj7ient, anguish. [pain. 

tormentor, one who causes 
touch, to perceive by feeling, 

to influence. 
tournament, a mock fight. 
towel, a cloth for Aviping the 
tower, a lofty building, [skin. 
trace, a track, pulling part of 

harness. 
traitor, one who betrays. 
travel, to journey. 
treacherous, faithless. 
treachery, trickery. 
treacle^ molasses, [ernment. 
treason, a betrayal of the gov- 
treasure, wealth stored up. 
treasury, a place for treasure. 
treaty, an agreement. 
treble, threefold, [an offence. 
trespass, passing a boundary, 
tress, a lock of hair. 
tribulation, great affliction. 
trifle, a thing of small value. 
trinity, three in one Godhead. 
trot, to move rapidly. 
trouble, to disturb. 
trttant, an idler. 
truncheon, a short staff. 
truss, to fasten in a package. 
tiirbot, a flat, round fish. 
turn, to cause to revolve. 
tyra7iny, despotism. 
tyrant, an oppressive ruler. 

[or mother. 
uncle, brother of one's father 
unicorn, a fabulous animal. 
usage, custom. 
use, custom. 

vacant, unoccupied. 

valley, a space between hills. 



valor, courage. [or shoe. 

vamp, upper leather of a boot 

vanity, conceit, worthlessness. 

vassal, a dependant. 

vast, of great extent. 

veal, the flesh of a calf. 

veil, a curtain. 

veiji, a tube conveying blood 
to the heart, the rib of a 
leaf 

vejigeance, vindictive punish- 
ment. 

venison, the flesh of a deer. 

venom, poison. 

verdict, a decision. 

very, true, real. 

vestmefit, 2l garment. 

vice, depravity, a tool for hold- 
ing firmly. 

victory, success in a contest. 

victuals, provisions. 

vigil, eve before a feast or 

vigor, energy. [fast day. 

vile, base. 

villain, a clownish or depraved 
person. 

villainy, wickedness. 

vintner, a wine dealer. 

violet, a small purple flower. 

virgin, a maiden. 

virtue, excellence. 

visage, the face. 

viscount, a title of honor. 

vision, sight. 

visit, to go to see. 

voice, sound from the mouth. 

void, empty. 

voyage, a journey. 

waif, an astray. 

wait, to watch. 

waive, to abandon a claim. 

warden, a keeper. 

warrant, a voucher, authority. 

warranty, a guarantee. 

warren, a place for game. 

waste, desolate, unused. 



70 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Suggestive Questions. 

1. From what languages are cabin, plaid, fiannel, tory, cabal^ 
chintz, nankeen, sofa, shawl, gojtg, malaria, veranda, lasso, 
guerilla, valise, car, toy, zinc, mahogany ? 

2. From what language are the most of our musical terms ? 
Why? 

3. What words from the Dutch belong to the sea ? 

4. What words from the German are found in Geology ? 

5. Point out the Celtic word in the following line: "The 
plowman homeward plods his weary way." 

6. Point out the Dutch word in the following line : " Now 
fades the glimmering landscape on the sight." 

7. What names of animals do we get from the American 
languages ? 

8. From what language are the following words : four, may, 
ought, beyojid, nor, men, write, good? Why? 

9. Why are most of the terms pertaining to government, re- 
ligion, the law, and gems of Norman French origin? 

10. Explain why abbess, canon, clergy, co7ifessor, friar, min- 
ister, pars 071, preacher, prelate, prior, prioress, are Norman 
French. 

11. Why are there so few English names of offices and 
titles ? 

12. Why are there so many English names of parts of the 
human body ? 

13. Give a reason why fireside, house, inn, and stall are 
English, and parlor, palace, domicile, and stable are Norman 
French. 

14.. Give a reason why beef, mutto7i, veal, and venison are 
Norman French, and ox, sheep, calf, and deer are English. 

15. What flowers have English names, and what have Nor- 
man French names ? Which language has the advantage in 
this respect ? 

16. Judging from the language, was the Englishman or the 
Norman more fond of natural scenery ? 

17. Name the language to which it belongs of each italicized 
word in the following quotations : 



ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 7 I 

•' The noblest 7nind the best contentment has''' 

"Underneath this stone doth, lie 
As much beauty as could die." 

" Stone walls do not a prison make^ 
Nor iron bars a cage'' 

" There is in souls a sympathy with sounds ; 
And as the mind is pitched, the ear is pleased 
With melting air^, or martial, brisk^ or grave ; 
Sojne chord in unison with what we hear 
Is touched within us, and the heart replies." 

Additional Exercises under Chapter I. 



Note. — As considerable misappi'ehension exists concerning the number of 
English words in the literary vocabulary of the present day, a class can do 
some very profitable work by determining the exact percentage used in char- 
acteristic selections from prominent authors. Or, better still, some short but 
complete work, like The Wife, in Irving's Sketch Book, or Gray's Elegy, 
or Goldsmith's Deserted Village, may be taken and analyzed. For words 
not in the lists and glossaries, a good work on Etymology should be used. 

The following brief selections will illustrate a method of analysis. The 
pupil should verify this analysis before undertaking other work. 



Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State ! 
Sail on, O Union, strong and great! 
Humanity with all its fears, 
With all the hopes of future years, 
Is hanging breathless on thy fate ! 
We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What Workman wrought thy ribs of steel, 
Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, 
What anvils rang, what hammers beat, 
In what a forge and what a heat 
Were shaped the anchors of thy hope ! 

— Longfellow. 



72 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Whole number of different words, 52. 
Number of English words, 44 
Number of French words. 
Percentage of English words, 82. 



}s. 



The words fate, forge, future, humanity , and union 
are not in the glossaries. The first four are proba- 
bly Norman French from the Latin, but later than 
1300; union is from the Latin through the French, 
and is more recent than the others. 

Home they brought her warrior dead; 

She nor swooned, nor uttered cry ; 
All her maidens, watching, said, 

She must weep, or she will die. 

Then they praised him, soft and low, 

Called him worthy to be loved. 
Truest friend and noblest foe ; 

Yet she neither spoke nor moved. 

Stole a maiden from her place, 

Lightly to the warrior stept, 
Took the face-cloth from the face : 
^Yet she neither moved nor wept. 

Rose a nurse of ninety years, 

Set his child upon her knee — 
Like summer tempest came her tears — 

"Sweet, my child, I live for thee." 

— Tennyson. 

Whole number of different words, 70. 
Number of English words, . . . 58^ 
Number of Norman French words, 9 V 70. 
Number of Scandinavian words, . 3 J 
Percentage of English words including all others, 79. 



ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 73 

Percentage of English words, including only- 
French, 84. 

The words die^ low, moved, took, and warrior are 

not in the glossaries. Die, low, and took are of 

Scandinavian origin. Moved is probably Norman 

French from the Latin, but later than 1300. 

Warrior is English later than 1300. 

When my eyes shall be turned to behold, for the last time, 
the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken 
and dishonored fragments of a once glorious union — on States 
dissevered, discordant, belligerent — on a land rent with civil 
feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood ! Let their 
last feeble and lingering glance rather behold the gorgeous 
ensign of the republic, now known and honored throughout 
the earth, still full high advanced, its arms and trophies 
streaming in their original luster, not a stripe erased or pol- 
luted, nor a single star obscured, bearing for its motto no such 
miserable interrogatory as " What is all this worth ? " nor those 
other words of delusion and folly, " Liberty first and union 
afterward," but every-where, spread all over in characters of 
living light, blazing on all its ample folds, as they float over 
the sea and over the land, and in every wind under the whole 
heavens, that other sentiment, dear to every true American 
heart — " Liberty and union, now and forever, one and insep- 
arable. ' * — Webster. 

Whole number of different words, 122. 

Number of English words, 83^ 

Number of Norman French words, . . 15 

Number of Latin words through the French, 10 

Number of words directly from the Latin, 9 ^ 122. 

Number of Italian words, 2 

Number of Scandinavian words, ... 2 

Number of Dutch words, I 

E. E.— 7. 



74 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Percentage of English words over all others, 6S. 

Percentage of English words over French and 
Latin, 71. 

American, ample, belligerent, characters, civil, delu- 
sion, dissevered, eitsign, erased, fragments, fraternal, 
glance, gorgeous, inseparable, interrogatory, liberty, lus- 
ter, miserable, motto, obscured, original, polluted, repub- 
lic, sentiment, single, stripe, they, trophies, and union 
are not in the glossaries. 

Ample, dissevered, obscured, original, and sentiment 
are probably Norman French. 

Ensign, fragments, fraternal, gorgeous, luster, liberty, 
miserable, republic, trophies, and union are Latin 
through the French. 

Belligerent, characters, civil, delusion, erased, insep- 
arable, interrogatory, polluted, and single are directly 
from the Latin. 

American and motto are Italian. 

Glance and they are Scandinavian. 

Stripe is Dutch. 



CHAPTER II. 



DERIVATION. 



Note. — This subject is too large to consider here exhaustively. As the 
sole object is to enable the student to define derivative words in common 
use, etymological rules will not be closely followed. It is hoped that what 
is given will be a stimulant to more careful and extensive study. The glos- 
saries in Chapter I. should be used by the student in the practical work of 
forming derivatives. All the words used as illustrations should be defined. 
To do this, it will not be necessary to refer to any other book, as all the 
materials are in this and the preceding chapter. 



A DERIVATIVE word, in a general sense, is one 
consisting of a root-word and one or more par- 
ticles called prefixes and suffixes. 

English derivatives, in their construction, gener- 
ally follow a definite rule. Either the entire word 
is from one language, or, if from more than 
one, the root-word is foreign — not Teutonic — and 
the prefixes and suffixes are Teutonic or English. 
Words formed in exception to this rule are called 
bad hybrids. The following are illustrations of bad 
hybrids : 

I. English Words with Romance Prefixes. 



Ac^ acknowledge. 
Dis, disbelief, disburden. 
E?n, embillow, embolden. 
En^ endear, enlighten, enthral. 



Re, rebuild, rekindle, relight, 
remind, reopen, retake, 
reseat. [kingdom. 

Sub, sub-let, sub-worker, sub- 
(75) 



^6 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



II. English Words with Romance Suffixes. 



Able, eatable, laughable, read- 
able, unmistakable. 

^^,^^, bondage, cartage, dotage, 
stowage, tillage, tonnage. 

Atice, hindrance, forbearance. 

Ative, talkative. 

Ery, lottery, brewery. 

Ess, goddess, huntress, seam- 



stress, shepherdess, song- 
stress. 

Ity, oddity. 

Ment, atonement, endearment, 
wonderment. 

Ous, burdenous, luscious, rav- 
enous. 

Ry, knavery, midwifery. 



A knowledge of the principal prefixes and suf- 
fixes, and of the most familiar root-words, is essen- 
tial to correct definition, and assists materially in 
enlarging the vocabulary of the student. 



I. Prefixes of English Origin. 

A — to, from, full of, on. — Arise, away, athirst, aboard. 

After — behind, past, second. — Aftermost, afterdinner, after- 
growth. 

At — (generally Latin), to. — Atone. 

Be — by, over, take off, act as, overtaken by, give. — Because, 
besmear, behead, befriend, benighted, betroth. 

By — aside, near,fai7iiliar. — By-path, by-stander, by-word. 

E'or — against, eJitirely, quite. — Forbid, forgive, forlorn. 

Fore — before. — Foretell. 

Forth — before, now. — Forthcoming, forthwith. 

Gain — agaijtst. — Gainsay. 

/;« — (generally Latin), within. — Imbed. 

In — (generally Latin), within. — Inborn. 

Mid^middle. — Midnight. 

Mis — (also Latin), wrong, evil, bad, not. — Misbehave, mis- 
deed, misprint, misbelieved. 

Nether — down^ low. — Nethermost, Netherlands. 

Of (sometimes Latin), Off. — down, away, out. — Offal, offset, 
offspring. 



LATIN PREFIXES. 'J^ 

On — upon, forward. — Onset, onward. 
Or — out. — Ordeal. 

Over — above, beyond, exceedingly. — Overcoat, overflow, over- 
curious. 

Thorough — complete. — Thoroughfare. 

Un — not, back, take off. — Unwise, unlock, undress. 

Under — below, in charge. — Undergrowth, undertake. 

Up — high, over. — Upland, upset. 

Utter — beyond. — Uttermost. 

With — back^ against. — Withhold, withstand. 

II. Prefixes of Latin Origin. 

Ab, A, Abs^from, away. — Abduct, avert, abstract. 

Ad — at, to, from. — From which are : ac, of, ag^ al, an, ap, 
ar, as, at. — Admire, accede, affix, aggress, allude, annex, ap- 
pend, arrogate, assign, attract. 

A7nb, Am, Ambi — both, around, double. — Ambient, ampu- 
tate, ambiguous. 

Bene — good, well. — Benefit, benevolent. 

Bi — two. — Biennial, 

Circum — around, about. — Circumscribe, circumspect. 

Contra, Counter, Contra — against. — Contradict, counteract, 
controvert. 

Cum — with, together. — From which are : co, cog, col, com, 
con, cor — Coagulate, cognomen, collect, commute, connect, 
corrupt. 

Demi — half. — Demigod. 

Dis — down, against, upon, for, from, around. — From which 
are : de, des, di, dif—D'\s^t\, defeat, deputy, descant, divert, 
diffuse. 

Equ, Eqiii — evenness, equal. — Equanimity, equivalent. 

Ex — beyo7id, out. — From which are : e, ef, es, is — Extend, 
eject, effect, escape, issue. 

Extra — beyond. — Extraordinary. 

In — within, upon, against. — From which are : am, an, em, 
en, il, ii7t, ir — Include, ambush, annul, embower, endure, il- 
lude, immense, irruption, injurious. 



78 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. . 

In — not. — From which are : en, ig, il, im, ir — Infirm, enemy, 
ignoble, illegal, immortal, irregular. 

Indi — within, — Indigenous. 

Inter — between. — Intervene. 

Intro — within. — Introduce. 

Juxta — next to. — Juxtaposition. 

Mai, Male — wrong, evil. — Maltreat, malediction. 

Mann, Mani, Maiti, Man — by hand. — Manumit, manifold, 
maintain, manage. 

Mis — evil, wrong. — Misconduct, misfit. 

Multi — many. — Multiply. 

Nec^ Neg — not. — Neglect. 

Non — not. — Nonsense. 

Ob — out, to, down, against. — From which are : o, oc, ofy op, 
OS — Oblong, omit, occur, offer, oppress, ostensible. 

Omni — all, every-where. — Omniscient, omnipresent. 

Pen — almost. — Penumbra. 

Per, Par — through, beyond, along. — Perceive, perjure, par- 
terre. 

Por— forward. — Portray. 

Post — after. — Postscript. 

Pre, Pur — before, against. — Pretend, prejudice, purpose. 

Preter — beyond. — Pretern atural. 

Pro — forward, forth. — Provide, procreate. 

Re, Red — again, back. — Remove, refund, redeem. 

Retro — <^<3:r>^.-^Retrograde. 

Se — beyond, apart, out. — Seduce, secede, select. 

Se7ni — half. — Semivocal. 

Sine — without. — Sinecure. 

Sub — under, beyond. — From which are : so, su, sue, suf sug, 
sum, sup, sur, sus. — Submit, sojourn, suspicion, succeed, suf- 
fuse, suggest, summon, suppress, surmise, sustain. 

Subter — under. — Subterfuge. 

Super — above, beyond. — Supercede, supernatural. 

Trans, Tran, Tra — across, through, beyond, over, — Trans- 
late, transpire, traduce, transport. 

Ultra — beyond. — Ultramarine. 

Uni — one. — Uniform. 



GREEK PREFIXES. 79 



Vale— farewell. — Valediction, 
Vice — instead of. — Vice-regal. 



III. Prefixes of Greek Origin. 

Amphi — on both sides. — Amphibious, amphitheater. 

An^ A — without. — Anarchy, abyss. 

A7ia — upon, up, back, again. — Analogy, anagram, analyze, 
anapaest, aneurism. 

Anti, Ant — against, opposite to. — Antipodes, antarctic. 

Apo, Aph — off. — Apology, aphelion. 

Arch, Arche, Archi — chief. — Archbishop, archetype, architect. 

Auto, Aut — self — Autobiography, autopsy. 

Cata, Cath — complete, according to. — Catalogue, Catholic. 

Dia, De — through, between, across. — Diameter, dialogue, 
devil. 

Dys — with difficulty. — Dyspepsia. 

£c, Ex, Exo — out, outside. — Eclectic, exodus, exogen. 

Em, El, En — in. — Emphasis, ellipse, energy. 

Endo — withi7i. — Endogen. 

Epi, Ep, Eph — upon, for. — Epidemic, epode, ephemeral. 

Eu, Ev — well. — Eulogy, evangelist. 

Hemi — half. — Hemisphere. 

Hepta — seven. — Heptagon. 

Hetero — another. — Heterogeneous. 

Hexa — six. — Hexameter. 

Holo — whole. — Holocaust. 

Homo — same. — -Homogeneous. 

Hyper — above, beyond. — Hypercritical, hyperbole. 

HyPo, Hyph — U7ider. — Hypocrite, hyphen, 

Meta, Met, Meth — change, among, with. — Metaphor, me- 
tempsychosis, method. 

Mono — one. — Monopoly. 

Octa — eight. — Octagon . 

Pa7i, Panto — all. — Pantheon, pantomime. 

Par, Para — beside, equal. — Parody, paraphrase. 

Peri — arou7id, near. — Periphrase, perigee. 



80 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Poly — many, — Polyglot. 
Pro, Pros — bejore. — Prophet, prosody. 
Proto— first. — Prototype. 
Sis — pertaining to. — Metemsychosis. 

Syn, Sy, Syl, Syin — together. — Synonymous, system; sylla- 
ble, sympathy. 

IV. Suffixes of English Origin. 

Ard — that which, one who. — Standard, drunkard. 

Beam — a tree, a bar, — Hornbeam, sunbeam. 

Craft — knowledge, — Woodcraft. 

Doni — country, condition of being. — Kingdom, wisdom. 

Ed — did, having, state of being. — Blessed, horned, loved. 

El — that which, — Shovel. 

En — state of being., to make, inade of, like. — Drunken, fatten, 
wooden, flaxen. 

Er — 07ie who, that which. — Singer, layer. 

Est — 7nost. — Wisest. 

Pare — way, condition of being. — Thoroughfare, welfare. 

Past, P'aced— fixed, condition of being. — Steadfast, shame- 
faced. 

Pold — times, — twofold. 

Fiil—full of, — Hateful. 

Hood, Head — state of being. — Manhood, Godhead. 

le — small. — Lassie. 

Ing— pertaining to. — Clothing. 

Ish — like, somewhat, — Heathenish, reddish. 

Kin — stnall. — Lambkin, 

Kind — race. — Mankind. 

Ledge — that which is. — Knowledge. 

Less^ree from, without. — Guiltless, harmless. 

Let — small. — Leaflet. 

Ling, Long — somewhat, downwards, sjnall, beloftging to, 
one who is. — Darkling, headlong, gosling, worldling, hireling. 

Lock, Lie — plant ^ united. — Hemlock, wedlock, garlic. 

Ly — like, in a inanner. — Godly, bravely. 

Meal — measure. — Piecemeal. 



LATIN SUFFIXES. 8 1 

Monger — dealer. — N e wsmonger. 

Ness — state of being. — Ripeness. 

Ock — small. — Hillock. 

Red — existence of. — Hatred. 

Rel — somewhat. — Mongrel. 

Ric — do7ninion of. — Bishopric. 

Ship — relaiio7i of, office or do?ninion of, condition of being. — 
Friendship, lordship, hardship. 

So?ne — with, like, possessing. — Blithesome, gamesome, ful- 
some. 

Ster — that which, one who. — Bolster, spinster. 

Ward — leading to. — Homeward. 

Ways — manner. — Sideways. 

Wick — territory of. — Bailiwick. 

Wise — manner. — Like wis e . 

Wright — author of, worker. — Playwright, wheelwright. 

Y- — in a manner, somewhat, small. — Crafty, slippery, Betty. 

Yer — one who. — Lawyer. 

V. Suffixes of Latin Origin. 

Able— full of capable of being, able to be. — Laughable, tena- 
ble, comfortable. 

Ac — having, pertaining to. — Demoniac, cardiac. 

Ace — that which, belonging to. — Menace, populace. 

Acious — possessing. — Capacious. 

Ade — consisting of, containing. — Cavalcade, lemonade. 

Age^possessing^ belonging to., capable of being. — Courage, 
carnage, beverage. 

Air — otie who. — Corsair. 

Al — belonging to. — Legal. 

An., Ain — belonging to., one who is. — Partisan, artisan, 
mountain, captain. 

A7tce — pertaining to. — Penance. 

Ant — one who, that which is. — Servant, discordant. 

Ar — one who, place where, pertaining to. — Scholar, cellar, 
regular. 

Ary — relating to, one who is, place for. — Traditionary, adver- 
sary, depositary. 



82 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Asf — one who. — Enthusiast. 

Ate — one who, act of, that which has, that which is. — Ad- 
vocate, abrogate, animate, ultimate, 

Atic — belonging to. — Aquatic. 

Ble — worthy of. — Laudable. 

Bond — one who. — Vagabond. 

C— pertaining to. — Civic. 

Cel, Cle, Cute — S7nalL — Parcel, corpuscle, animalcule. 
■ Cy— state of being. — Constancy, 

Dor — a place for. — Corridor. 

Ean— belonging to. — Subterranean. 

Ee — one who is^ one who. — Legatee, payee. 

Eer — one who, inhabitant of. — Engineer, mountaineer. 

El — containing. — Charnel. 

En — one who is. — Alien. 

Ence — act of, result of — Effulgence, divergence. 

Ensis — one who does. — Amanuensis. 

Ent — that which, one who. — Consequent, patient. 

Er — that which, one who. — Flower, barber. 

Ere I — small. — Pickerel . 

Em — place for, — Northern. 

Ery — place for. — Distillery. 

Ese — belonging to. — Chinese. 

Esque — like. — Picturesque. 

Ess—femini7ie, condition of being. — Countess, duress. 

Et— place for, that which. — Corset, signet. 

Eur — one who. — Amateur. 

Ible — that can be, capable of. — Fallible, sensible. 

Ic — pertaining to, science of. — Heroic, logic. 

Id — conditiofi of being. — Frigid, 

Iff— one who. — Plaintiff, 

// — condition of being. — Civil. 

He — condition of being, easily. — Hostile, fragile. 

In — belonging to. — Origin, 

Ine — pertaining to. — Famine. 

Ion — act of, pertaining to. — Expression, corporation. 

Ise — condition of beings that which. — Merchandise. 

Ish — to give, to make. — Admonish, finish. 



GREEK SUFFIXES. 83 

Ism — belonging to. — Heroism. 

1st — one who deals m or has a knowledge of. — Florist, scientist. 

// — one who belongs to, that which is. — ^Jesuit, credit. 

Ite — condition of beings belonging to, one who. — Definite, 
Israelite, favorite. 

Ity — that which is. — Cavity. 

Ive — one who, inclined to. — Fugitive, motive. 

Lence— fullness of. — Corpulence. 

Lent— full of — Fraudulent. 

Ment— founded on, act of — Experiment, discernment. 

Mony — that which is, state of — Acrimony, matrimony. 

Oir — that which. — Reservoir. 

Ory — that which, place for. — Satisfactory, laboratory. 

Ose — full of abundance of. — Bellicose, verbose. 

Ot — small, one who has, one who loves. — Ballot, zealot, patriot. 

Our, Or — one who^ state of. — Savior, traitor, favor. 

Ous—full of capacity for, condition of — Curious, omnivor- 
ous, superfluous. 

R — condition of being. — Fever. 

Ry — that which is, a place for, art of, composed of — Pleas- 
antry, hostelry, forestry, tenantry. [theater. 

Ter — 07ie who, a place, a place for seeing. — Minister, cloister, 

Tery — a place for. — Monastery. 

Time- — belonging to. — Maritime. 

Tory — relating to. — Epistolatory. 

Trix — a woman who. — Executrix. [multitude, servitude. 

Tude — having, consisting of, conditioti of being. — Similitude, 

Ty — state of being. — Probity. 

Und — condition of being. — Rubicund. 

Ure — that which, pertaining to. — Tenure, literature. 

Y- — condition of being, faculty of, act of, science of, place of 
that which, one who, position of, like. — Barony, courtesy, rob- 
bery, geometry, abbey, remedy, enemy, deputy, spongy. 

VI. Suffixes of Greek Origin. 

la — state of. — Dyspepsia. 

Ics — science of art of. — Pneumatics, pyrotechnics. 



84 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Id — relating to, shape of. — yEneid, cycloid. 

Is — belonging to. — Glottis. 

Ise, Ize — to make, to give. — Criticise, evangelize. 

Is7n, Asm — that which is. — Criticism, phantasm. 

0771 — that which is. — Phantom. 

On — that which is, a place for. — Lexicon, pantheon. 

Ue — one who. — Demagogue. 

U771 — a place for^ that which is. — Gymnasium, pericardium. 

VII. Some Root Words of Latin Origin. 

(Acer), ac, acerb, acr, acri, eag — Sharp. — Acid, acerbity, 
acrid, acrimony, eager. 

{^qiius), equ, equal, equal, equit, iqui — Equal. — Equal, 
equality, equation, equitable, iniquity. 

{^sti77zare), ai77i, estee7n.^ esti77t — To value. — Aimless, esteem, 
estimate. 

{Agere), act, actu, ag, age, agit, agu, gent, gu — To do, to 
perform. — Action, actual, agent, manage, agitate, coagulate, 
cogent, ambiguous. 

{Alius), ali — Another. — Alien. 

{A77tare), amat, a77ie7t, a77ii, a77iic, a7nor, e7n, i77iic — To love. — • 
Amatory, amenable, amiable, amicable, amorous, enemy, 
inimical. 

{A7ti77ia), ani77t, aniinos — Life. — Animate, animosity. 

{A7tm^s), ann, anni, annu, enni — A year. — Annals, anniver- 
sary, annual, biennial. 

{Aqua), aqu, aqua, aque — Water. — Aquatic, aquafortis, 
aqueous. 

{Ar77iare), ar77i, ar77ia, ar77ii — To arm. — Army, armament, 
armistice. 

{Ars), art, arti, artill, artis, ert — Skill. — Artful, artifice, ar- 
tillery, artisan, inert. 

{Audire), aud, audi, audit, edi — To hear. — Audible, audi- 
ence, auditor, obedient. 

{Augere), auct, aug, auth, anxili — To increase. — Auction, 
augment, author, auxiliary. 

(Barba), barb — A beard. — Barber. 



LATIN ROOT- WORDS. 8$ 

{Bellujn), bel, bell, belli, bellic — War. — Rebel, rebellion, 
belligerent, bellicose. 

{Bene), bene, beni — Well. — Benefit, benison. ' [imbibe. 

{Bibere), bever, bibb, bibe — To drink. — Beverage, bibber, 

( Caballus), caval^ cavali, ckevali, chival — A horse. — Cavalry, 
cavalier, chevalier, chivalry. 

{Cadere), cad, cas, cheat, cidu, cay, cid — To fall. — Cadence, 
occasion, escheat, deciduous, decay, incident. 

( Ccedere), cide, cis, cise — To cut, to kill. — Fratricide, incision, 
concise. 

{Cantare), cant, canti^ cent^ chant — To sing. — Recant, canti- 
cle, accent, chanting. 

( Capere), cait, cap., capt, capti, case, cash, cask, catch, ceipt, 
ceit, ceive, cept, chase, cip, cipat, dpi, cup, cup at — To have, 
hold, take, contain. — Caitiff, capable, captor, captious, case- 
ment, cashier, casket, catcher, receipt, conceit, deceive, accept, 
principal, participial, anticipation, occupy, occupation. 

{Caput), cape, capit, capitat, capitul, capt, chapt, chatt, 
chieft, chieve, cipicCy ciput, corpor — The head. — Cape, capital, 
capitation, capitulate, captain, chapter, chattel, chieftain, 
achieve, precipice, occiput, corporal. 

{Caro), earn, carri, charn — Flesh. — Carnal, carrion, charnel. 

{Cavus), cav, cave — A hollow. — Cavity, cave. 

( Celare), ceal, cell, cult — To hide. — Conceal, cellar, occult. 
\Cedere), cease, ced, cede, ceed, cess, cessat, cest — To come, 
go, go away, yield. — Decease, acceded, concede, exceed, re- 
cess, cessation, ancestor. 

{Cernere), cern, ere, cree, creet, cret — To perceive, to sepa- 
rate. — Concern, excrement, decree, discreet, secret. 

{Ciere), citat, cite — To rouse, to call forth. — Recitation, excite. 

{Civis), cit, citiz, civ — A citizen. — City, citizen, civil. 

{Clamare), claniat, claim, clamor- — To cry out. — Exclama- 
tion, claimant, clamorous. 

{Clarus), clarat, dare, clari, clear — Clear. — Declaration, de- 
clare, clarify, clearness. 

{Claudere), clause, clois, clos, dose, dud, dude, dus, duse — 
To shut. — Clause, cloister, inclosure, inclose, excluded, in- 
clude, conclusion, recluse. 



86 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

{Clemens), clemen, clement — Mild. — Clemency, inclement. 

{Colere), colon, cult, cultiv — To cultivate. — Colony, culture, 
cultivate. 

( Cor), cardi, cord, cordi, cour — The heart. — Cardiac, accord, 
cordial, courage. 

{Corpus), corpor, corps, corpse, cors, corse, corpul, corpus — 
The body. — Incorporate, corps, corpse, corselet, corse, corpu- 
lent, corpuscle. 

{Creare), creat, create — To create, — Recreation, procreate. 

( Credere), creant, cred, credit, credul, creed — To believe. — 
Recreant, credence, creditable, credulous, creed. 

{Crescere)^ cre^ crease, cresc, cret^ crete, crue, cruit — To 
grow. — Increment, decrease, crescent, accretion, concrete, 
accrue, recruit. 

{Crux), cross, cruci, cms — A cross. — Cross, crucial, crusade. 

{Cura), cur, curat, cure, curi, sure — Care, attention. — 
Curate, curator, sinecure, curious, insure. 

{Currere), corri, cors, cor, court, course, cur^ current, curri^ 
curs — To run. — Corridor, corsair, succour, courier, concourse, 
incur, recurrent, curricle, discursive. 

{D(E77ion), demon, deuioni — A demon, a spirit. — Demon, de- 
moniac. 

{Damiiun), dam, damn, damnat, deitin, de7nni — A judg- 
ment, harm, loss. — Damage, damnable, damnation, condemn, 
indemnify. 

{Dare), date, dlt—To give. — Date, edition. 

{Delere), del — To destroy, — Indelible. 

{De7is), dent, dentit — A tooth. — Dentist, dentition. 

{Dicere), diet, dit, dife, son — To say. — Predict, condition, in- 
dite, malison. 

{Digitus), dain, deigji, dign, digni — Worthy. — Disdain, 
deign, condign, dignity. 

{Diurnare), joiirn — To stay. — Sojourn. 

{Dolere), dol, dole, dolor — To grieve. — Indolence, condole, 
dolorous. 

{Due ere), doubt, due, duce, duck, duct, due^ duit, duke — To 
lead. — Redoubt, ducal, produce, duchess, abduct, subdue, con- 
duit, dukedom. 



LATIN ROOT-WORDS. 8/ 

{Durus), dur^ dure — Hard. — Indurate, endure. 

i^Einere)^ eeiti^ einpt, mium, mpt, mptu — To take, to buy. — 
Redeem, exempt, premium, prompt, impromptu. 

{Epistola), epistle, epistol — A letter. — Epistle, epistolary. 

{Equus), eguestri, equ — A horse. — Equestrian, equine. 

{Errare), err, errat, errone — To wander, to go wrong. — Un- 
erring, aberration, erroneous. 

[Esse), enti^ ess, est, futuri, sence, sent, senti — To be. — En- 
tity, essence, interest, futurity, presence, absent, essential. 

{Facere), fac, fact, factiti, facul, fash, feas, feat, feet, feit, fiat^ 
fica, fice, flci, ficit, fit, fy — To do, to make, to become. — Facile, 
factor, factitious, faculty, fashion, feasible, defeat, perfect, 
counterfeit, fiat, efficacy, suffice, proficient, deficit, benefit, 
signify. 

{Eallere), fall, falla, false^ falsi, fatilt — To deceive. — Falli- 
ble, fallacy, falsehood, falsify, default. 

{^Faines)y fam — Hunger. — Famine. 

{Fari), fable, fabul, face, fan, fant, fat, fate, fatal — To 
speak. — Affable, fabulous, preface, infancy, infantry, fatal, 
fateful, fatality. 

{Favere), favor — To befriend. — Favorite. 

(Febris), febr, feve — A trembling. — Febrile, fever. 

{Fendere), fence, fend, fense, fest — To strike. — Defence, de- 
fendant, offense, manifest. 

(^Ferre), fer, fert — To bear, — Transfer, fertile. 

(^Figere), fix — To fix. — Transfix. 

{Finger e"), feign ^ feint, fie t J fig — To form, to pretend. — Feign- 
ing, feint, fiction, figure. 

{Finis'), fin, fi7ie, fini — An end. — Final, define, infinity. 

{Firmus), firm, finna — Firm. — Infirm, firmament. 

{Flectere), fleet, fiex, flinch — To bend. — Reflect, flexible, 
flinching. 

{Fligere), flict, flig — To strike, to dash. — Conflict, profli- 
gate. 

{Flos), flor, floresc , flour, flower — A flower. — Floral, efflores- 
cence, flour, deflower. 

{Fluere), flu, fluctu, flux — To flow. — Fluent, fluctuate, de- 
fluxion. 



88 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

{Forts), forest — Out of doors. — Forester. 

{Formare) , form — To shape. — Reform. 

{Fortis), fort, fortis — Strength. — Comfort, aquafortis. 

{Frangere), fract, fr ag, f r ail, f rang, fray — To break. — Fract- 
ure, fragile, frailty, frangible, defray. 

{Fraus), fraud, fraudu — Deceit, guile. — Fraudful, fraudu- 
lent. 

{Frater)y fratern, fratri, friar — A brother. — Fraternal, fratri- 
cide, friarly. 

{Frigus), frig, friger — Cold. — Frigid, refrigerate. 

{Fugere), fug, fuge, fugit — To flee. — Centrifugal, refuge, 
fugitive. 

{Fulgere), fidg — To shine. — Effulgent. 

{Futidere), fou7id, fund, f us, fuse, fut — To pour out, to melt. — 
Confound, refund, profusion, effuse, futile. 

{Fundus), found, foundat, fund, funda — A foundation. — 
Founder, foundation, fund, fundamental, 

{Genus), gen, gener, geni, genius, genu, genus, gin — Race, 
kin. — Progeny, generate, genial, genius, genuine, genus, engi- 
neer, 

{Gerere), ger, gest, gestat, gesticul, gist, jest — To bear, to 
carry on. — Belligerent, digest, gestation, gesticulate, register, 
jester. 

{Gignere), gen, gend, genit — To be born, to generate, ta 
produce. — Indigenous, engender, genital. 

( Gradi), grade, gradu, gredi, gree, gress— To step, to walk.— 
Degrade, gradual, ingredient, degree, aggressive, 

{Gratus), grace, grate, grati, gratis, gratu, gratuit, gratul, 
gree — Dear, pleasing, — Graceful, ingrate, gratify, gratis, gra- 
tuity, gratuitous, congratulate, agreeable. 

{Habere), able, aver, hab, habi — To have'. — Unable, average, 
habit, habitude. 

{Heros), hero — A hero. — Heroism. 

{Hostis), host — An enemy. — Hostage. 

{Ire), lent, ish, it, is — To go. — Transient, perish, circuit, issue. 

{facere), gist, jac, ject, joist — To lie. — Gist, adjacent, joist. 

{facere), jacul, ject—r-To throw. — Ejaculate, project, adjec- 
tive. 



LATIN ROOT-WORDS. 89 

i^Judiciuut), judice, judici — A judge. — Prejudice, judicial. 

{Ju?igere), join, joint, junct — To join. — Rejoin, conjointly, 
junction. 

{Jurare), jur, jurat, jure — To swear. — ^Jury, conjuration, 
abjure. 

(^ Jus), jur, juri, juris, just — Right, justice, law. — Jurist, inju- 
rious, jurisdiction, unjust. 

{Laborare), labor, laborat — To labor. — Elaborate, laboratory. 

{Latus), late, later, lati — A side, broad. — Oblate, lateral, 
latitude. 

{Laus), laud — Praise. — Laudable. 

{Legare), league, lega, legate, lege — To appoint. — Colleague, 
legacy, delegate, allege. 

{Legere), lect, leg, legend, lig — To gather, to read. — Collect, 
elegant, legendary, diligent. 

(^Lex), leg, lege, legis, legitim — A law. — Legal, privilege, leg- 
islate, legitimate. 

{Liber), liber — Free. — Liberty. 

{Ligare), league, li, lien, liga, lige, ligat, ly — To bind. — 
League, liable, lien, ligament, oblige, ligature, ally. 

{Litera), letter, liter, literal — A letter. — Letter, literal, litera- 
ture. 

{Loqui), locut, loqu, loqui — To speak. — Elocution, colloquy, 
colloquial. 

{Ludere), lude, ludicr, lus — To play. — Allude, ludicrous, 
illusion. 

{Luere), luge, lut, lute, luvi — To wash away. — Deluge, ablu- 
tion, dilute, alluvial. 

{Malus), mal, malad, male^ malici, malign — Bad, evil. — 
Malformation, malady, malediction, malicious, malignity. 

{Manus), main, man, 7nana, mani, ma7tu — A hand. — Main- 
tain, manage, manacle, manifest, manual. 

{Mare), mar, mari — The sea. — Marine, maritime, 

{Mater), matern, matri, matricul, matrix, 7natro7i — A mother. 
— Maternal, matricide, matriculate, matrix, matron. 

{Mederi), med, medic, medit — To cure. — Remedy, medicine, 
meditate. 

{Memini), niinisc — To remember. — Reminiscence. 

E. E.— 8. 



go ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

{Mentor), member, jnemoir, 7nemor — Mindful. — Remember, 
memoir, memory. 

{Mercari), mere, 7nercant, merce^ merch, inerchand — To 
gain, to deserve, to buy. — Mercer, mercantile, commerce, mer- 
chant, merchandise. 

{Metiri), meas, mens, mense, mensurat — To measure. — Meas- 
ure, dimension, immense, mensuration. 

{Mijiacid), men — A threat. — Menace. 

{Minor), mi?t, minis, minor, minu, minus, minut, minstr — 
Less. — Diminish, minister, minority, minuet, minus, comminu- 
tion, minstrel. 

{Mirare), marvel, mirac^ rnire — To wonder. — Marvelous, 
miracle, admire. 

{Mittere), mass, mess, mise, miss, missile, mit — To send. — 
Mass, message, demise, dismiss, missile, permit. 

{Modus), mod, mode, modi, modu, mood, mold — Manner, 
measure. — Modern, mode, commodious, modulate, moody, re- 
mold. 

{Monere), mon, monit, monu, mu — To advise, to warn. — 
Summon, monition, monument, muster. 

{Mans), mont, mount — A mountain. — Mont, mountain. 

{Mors), mort, morti — Death. — Mortal, mortify. 

{Mos), mor, mure — Custom. — Moral, demure. 

{Movere), mob, mot, mote, move, 7nutin^— To move. — Mobile, 
emotion, promote, remove, mutiny. 

{Multus), multi — Many. — Multitude. 

{Mutare), mut, mutat, mute — To change. — Mutable, trans- 
mutation, commute. 

{Nasci), nasc, nat, nate, natur — To be born. — Nascent, natal, 
cognate, natural. 

{Nectere), nect, nex — To bind. — Connect, annex. 

{Nocere), noc, noxi, nuis — To hurt. — Innocent, noxious, 
nuisance. 

{Nomen), no7nen, nomi, nomin, noun, nown — A name. — Cog- 
nomen, binomial, nominate, pronoun, renown. 

{Nose ere), 7iore, nis, nit, noble, not, note, noti, notice, notori, 
quaint — To know. — Ignore, cognisance, cognition, ignoble, 
notion, denote, notify, notice, notorious, acquaint. 



LATIN ROOT-WORDS. 9 1 

(Nox), nocturn^ nox — Night. — Nocturnal, equinox. 

{Nullus), nul, null^ nulli — None. — Annul, null, nullify. 

( Opus, Operari), oper, opera, operat, ure — A work. — Oper- 
ate, opera, operation, inure. 

{Orare), or, ora, orat, ore, orison — To pray, to ask. — Inexo- 
rable, oracle, oration, adore, orison. 

{Oriri), orient, ort — To rise. — Oriental, abortive. 

{Par), pair, par, pari, peer — Equal. — Pair, apparel, disparity, 
compeer. 

{Parare), pair, para, parat, parate, pare, per, peri, ver — To 
prepare, to ward off. — Repair, parasol, apparatus, separate, 
compare, emperor, imperial, several. 

{Parere), parent, parit, pear — To be present. — Transparent, 
apparition, appear. 

{Parere), parent, parturi, pert — To bring forth. — Parental, 
parturient, repertory. 

{Pars), par, parse, part, parti, partis, partit, port — A part. — 
Parcel, parse, depart, partial, partisan, partition, portion. 

{Pater), parri, patern,patri, patrist, patron — A father. — Par- 
ricide, paternal, patriarch, patristic, patronage. 

{Pati), pass, pat, pati — To suffer. — Passion, compatible, patient. 

{Pellere), peal, pel, pell, pellat, pelt, puis, pulse, push — To 
drive, to beat. — Appeal, repel, appellant, interpellation, pelt, 
pulsate, repulse, push. 

{Pender e), p end, pendi, pendicul, pendul, pens, pense, poise, 
ponder — To hang, to weigh. — Depend, compendious, perpen- 
dicular, pendulous, compensate, dispense, counterpoise, pre- 
ponderate. 

{Periri), per, peri^ pert — To try, to go through. — Peril, ex- 
perience, expert. 

{Pes), ped, pede, pedestr, pedi — A foot. — Pedal, impede, 
pedestrian, impediment. 

{Petere), peat, pet, petit, petu, petul — To seek, to ask, to 
attack. — Repeat, appetite, petition, impetuous, petulant. 

{Pingere), paint, pict, pig, pictur — To paint. — Picture, 
painter, pigment, picturesque. 

{Placere), plac, plais, plea, pleas, please — To please. — Com- 
placent, complaisant, pleasure, displease. 



92 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

i^Plangere), plague, plain, plaint — To strike. — Plague, com- 
plain, plaintiff. 

{Plere), pie, plet, plete, pli, plish^ ply — To fill. — Implement, 
depletion, replete, compliance, accomplish, supply. 

{Plicare), plait ^ pl^^y, pl^, plex, pii,plic^ploit, plot, ploy, ply — 
To fold. — Plait, display, supple, complex, pliant, explicate, ex- 
ploit, plot, deploy, apply. 

{Pcena), pain, pe7t, penit, pine, poena, pun — Punishment, 
pain. — Painful, penal, penitent, repine, subpoena, impunity. 

{Ponere), pon, pose, posit, posite, post, pot, pound, vost — To 
place. — Component, purpose, position, apposite, impost, depot, 
expound, provost. 

{Populus), people, popul^ publ — People. — People, popular, 
public. 

{Portare), port — To carry. — Import. 

i^Posse), poss, potent, power, — To be able. — Possible, impo- 
tent, powerful. 

{Prekendere), pregn, prehend, prehens, prentice, pris, prise, 
prize — To take, to seize, to hold. — Impregnable, apprehend, 
prehensile, apprentice, imprison, surprise, prize. 

{Pre7nere), press, priinand^ print — To press. — Depress, repri- 
mand, imprint. 

{Presens), present — Near. — Omnipresent. 

{Prijjius), premi, pri^ prim, prime, pj'imit, prin, prist — 
First. — Premier, prior, primrose, prime, primitive, principal, 
pristine. 

{Privare), priv, prive, privi — To separate, to set apart. — 
Private, deprive, privilege. 

{Probare), prieve, probat, pj'obe , probi, proof, prove — To prove, 
to try. — Reprieve, probation, probe, probity, reproof, approve. 

{Projiteri), profess — To avow. — Professor. 

{Pujtgere), poign, point, pounce, punch, punct^ punctu, pung, 
punge — To sting, — Poignant, appoint, pounce, punch, punct- 
ure, punctual, pungent, expunge. 

{Putare), count, put, putat, pute — To think, to reckon, to 
lop or cut. — Discount, amputate, putative, compute. 

{Quczrere), quer, quest, quire, quisit — To seek. — Conquer, 
inquest, require, disquisition. 



LATIN ROOT-WORDS. 93 

{Rapere), rap, rapt, rav — To seize. — Rapine, rapture, ravage. 

{Regere), red, recti, reg, regi, regul, rid, rule — To direct, 
to rule. — Correct, rectify, regent, regiment, regular, unruly, 
rule. 

{Ridere), ride, ridicul, risi — To laugh. — Deride, ridiculous, 
risible. 

{Rogare), rogat, rogate, rogue — To ask. — Rogation, abro- 
gate, prorogue. 

{Ruber), rub, rubr, rouge — Red. — Ruby, rubric, rouge. 

{Rumpere), rupt, rout, route — To break. — Abrupt, rout, routie. 

{Satire), sail, sali, sally, sault, sili, suit, ult — To leap. — 
Assail, salient, sally, assault, resilient, desultory, exult. 

{Salvus), safe, sage, salv, salvat, savi — Safe. — Safe, sage, 
salvage, salvation, Savior. 

{Sacrare), ecrate, sacra, sacred, secrate — To make holy. — 
Execrate, sacrament, sacredly, consecrate. 

{Sancire), saint, sancti, sanctu — To render sacred. — Saintly, 
sanctify, sanctuary. 

{Satis), sati, satis, sets — Full. — Satiate, satisfy, assets. 

[Scandere), cend, scan, scans^ scend — To climb. — ^Ascend, 
scan, scansion, descend. 

{Scire), sci, sciol — To know. — Science, sciolist. 

{Scribere), scribe, script, scriven, scry — To write. — Transcribe, 
subscription, scrivener, descry. 

{Sedere), cease, sed, sede, sedent, sedi, sess, sid, side, sidi, sidu, 
size — To sit. — Surcease, sedate, supersede, sedentary, sedi- 
ment, assess, dissident, reside, insidious, assiduous, assize. 

{Sentire), sens, sense, sensu, sent, senti — To feel, to perceive. — 
Sensible, nonsense, sensual, consent, sentiment. 

{Sequi), ecute^ equies, second, sect, secut, secute, seqii, seqiii, 
sequies, sue^ suit — To follow. — Execute, exequies, second, sect, 
consecutive, persecute, subsequent, obsequious, obsequies, en- 
sue, pursuit. 

{Servare), serve — To protect, to keep. — Preserve, reserve. 

{Signu?n), sign, signi — A sign. — Ensign, signify. 
• {Siniilis), siniil^ simile — Like. — Similar, simile. 

{Sister e), ist, sist, slice, stitit — To rest. — Exist, consist, inter- 
stice, superstition. 



94 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

{Sol), sol — The sun.^Solar. 

{Solus), solate, sole, soli^ solit, solo, sull — ^Alone. — Desolate, 
sole, solitude, solitary, solo, sullen. 

{Solvere), solu, solut, solute, solve — To loosen, to set free. — 
Soluble, solution, resolute, dissolve. 

{Specere), pect, sped, species, specul, spicac, spic, spicu, spise, 
spite, spy — To see. — Aspect, specify, species, speculate, perspi- 
cacity, suspicion, conspicuous, despise, despite, espy. 

(Sperare)^ spair, sper — To hope. — Despair, prosperous. 

{Spondere), spond, spotis, spouse — To promise. — Respond, 
sponsor, espouse. 

{Spirare), spir, spira, spire, pire — To breathe. — Spirit, spir- 
acle, respire, expire. 

{Stare), st, sta, stage, stance, stant, stajiza, stat, state, stin, 
stitut, stitute — To stand. — Cost, obstacle, stage, circumstance, 
constant, stanza, station, state, obstinate, institution, destitute. 

{Stillare), stil, still — To fall in drops. — Distill, still. 

{Stringere), strain, strait, stress, strict, string — To bind. — 
Constrain, strait, distress, stricture, stringent. 

{Struere), stroy, stru, struct, strue — To build. — Destroy, in- 
strument, structure, construe. 

{Sujnere), swne, suinpt, sumptu — To take, to expend. — As- 
sume, consumption, sumptuous. 

( Tangere), tact, tag, tain, tamin, taftg, taste, tax, tigu, ting — 
To touch. — Intact, contagion, attain, contaminate, tangent, 
taste, tax, contiguous, contingent. 

{Temperare), temper, tamper — To regulate. — Attemper, tam- 
per. 

( Tempus), tempor^ tei7tporane, tense — Time. — Temporary, 
contemporaneous, tense. 

{Tendere), ten, tend, tens, tense, tent, tentat — To stretch, to 
aim at. — Tenor, attend, ostensible, intense, tent, ostentation. 

( Tenere), ten, tain — To hold. — Tenable, retain. 

( Terra), ter, terr, terrane, terre, terrestri, terri, territ — 
Earth. — Inter, terrace, subterranean, parterre, terrestrial, ter- 
rier, territory. 

( Toller e), toler, to I, late, lat — To lift, to bear. — Tolerate, ex- 
tol, relate, superlative. 



LATIN ROOT-WORDS. 95 

{Tradere), tradit, trait, tray — To deliver. — Tradition, traitor, 
betray. 

{Trakere), trace, tract, trail, trahend, train, trait, tray^ 
treat — To draw. — Retrace, abstract, trail, subtrahend, train, 
portrait, portray, retreat. 

{Tribuere), tribut, tribute — To pay. — Contribution, attribute. 

( Turner e), tu7ne, tumesc, tumult — To swell.— Tumefy, in- 
tumescence, tumult. 

( Turbare), turb, turbul — To disturb. — Disturb, turbulent. 

{Ulti?nus), ult, ultim — Last. — ;Penult, ultimate. 

{U?ius), un, uni — One. — Unanimous, universal. 

{Uti), us, use^ usu, usur, utens, util — To use. — Usage, mis- 
use, usual, usury, utensil, utility. 

{Vagari], vag, vaga, vagr, vague— To wander. — Extrava- 
gant, vagabond, vagrant, vaguely. 

( Valere), vail, val, valent, valetudin, vali, valor, valu, 
value — To be strong. — Prevail, valid, equivalent, valetudinary, 
valiant, valorous, valuable, value. 

( Velle), valence, volenti volit, volunt — To wish. — Benevo- 
lence, malevolent, voHtion, voluntary. 

( Venire), ven, vejie, veni, venu, venue, vent — To come. — 
Covenant, convene, convenient, parvenu, avenue, advent. 

( Verbuni), verb — A word. — Verbal. [converge. 

( Vergere), verg, verge — To incline, to tend. — Divergent, 

( Verier e'), vers, versatil, verse, versi, vert, vertex, vorce^ 
vortex — To turn. — Controversy, versatility, averse, versify, ad- 
vertise, vertex, divorce, vortex. 

( Verus), ver, veraci, veri, verit — True. — Verdict, veracious, 
verify, veritable. 

( Videre), vey^ vice, vid, vide, vidi, vietv^ vis, vise, visa, 
visu — To see. — Survey, advice, evident, provide, invidious, re- 
view, vision, advise, proviso, visual. 

( Vincere), vanqu, vince, vine, vict — To conquer. — Vanquish, 
convince, invincible, victor. 

( Vivere), viands^ viv, vive, vivi, vit, vivac — To live. — 
Viands, vivid, revive, convivial, vital, vivacity. 

( Vindex), venge, vindic, vindict — A claimant. — Revenge, 
vindicate, vindictive. 



go ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

( Vocare)^ voc, vocat, voci, voke, vouch — To call. — Advocate, 
provocation, vociferous, convoke, avouch. 

( Vorare), vorac, voraci, vour — To devour. — Voracity, vora- 
cious, devour. 

( Vovere), vot, vote, vout, vow — To vow. — Devotion, devote, 
devout, avow. 



VIII. Some Root-Words of Greek Origin. 

{Agein — hyEiv), agog, agogue — To lead. — Pedagogy, dema- 
gogue. 

{Aggelos — ayyeloq), angel — A messenger. — Angelic. 

{Aisthetikos — aladeriKog), cesthet — Perceptive. — -Esthetic. 

{Arctikos — dpKTCKog), Arctic — Northern. — Antarctic. 

{Astron — aarpov), astro, astron — A star. — Astrology, astron- 
omy. 

{Balletn — ^dXkeiv), ble, ble?n, bol, bola, vil — To throw. — Para- 
ble, problem, symbol, parabola, devil. 

{^Bios — /3/of), bi, bio — Life. — Amphibious, biology. 

{Bussos — (ivacog), byss — Depth. — Abyss. 

{Kaiein — naleiv), caust, cauter — To burn. — Caustic, cauterize. 

{Kaluptein — KaXvirTecv), calypse, calypt — To cover. — Apoca- 
lypse, apocalyptic. 

{Kardia — Kapdta), cardi — The heart. — Cardiac. 

{Khitrojt — nevrpov), center, centr — A center. — Center, eccen- 
tric. 

( Cheir — x^'-p)-, chiro — The hand. — Chirography. 

{Chole — xo'^v), choler — Bile, anger. — Choleric. 

{Chronos — x?^'^'^^)^ chron, chrono — Time. — Chronic, chro- 
nometer. 

{Kratos — Kparog)^ era, crat — Strength. — Theocracy, autocrat. 

{Krinein — Kpivetv), cris, crite — To judge, to discern. — Hypoc- 
risy, hypocrite. 

{Krites — npirr^c), crit, criteri — A judge. — Critic, criterion. 

i^Kruptein — Kpywreiv), cryph, crypt, crypto — To conceal. — 
Apocryphal, crypt, cryptogamia. 

{Kvklos — KVKlog), cycle, cyclo — A circle. — Epicycle, cycloid. 



GREEK ROOT-WORDS. 9/ 

{Demos — S^fiog), dem, demo — The people. — Demagogue, 
Democrat. 

{Doxa — 66^a), dox, doxo — An opinion, glory. — Orthodox, 
doxology. 

{Duna^nis — 6vva/j,Lg), dynam^ dynas — Power. — Dynamic, dy- 
nasty, 

{^Eis — e/f), en — One. — Hyphen. 

{Ergon — epyov), erg — Work. — Energy. 

{Ethos — n^oq), eth — A custom, moral nature. — Ethics. 

{Eurunein — evpvvetv), eur — To widen. — Aneurism. 

( Gamos — ydfiog), gain — Marriage. — Monogamy. 

{Ge — yv)^ gee, geo — The earth. — Apogee, geography. 

{Genos — ykvoq), gene — A race, kind. — Homogeneous. 

{Gignomai — yiyvoiiai), gen — To be born. — Exogen, 

{Glossa — ylCiGGo), gloss, glot — The tongue. — Glossary, poly- 
glot. 

{Gnonai — yvovat), gnom, gnome, gno, gnostic — To know. — 
Physiognomy, gnome, diagnosis, prognostic. 

{Gonia — yuvia), gon — An angle. — Polygon. 

{Graphein — ypa^tuv), gram, graph — To write. — Diagram, au- 
tograph. 

( Gumnos — yvfivog), gymnasi, gymnast — Naked. — Gymnasium, 
gymnastic. 

{Helios — rfkioq), heli, heliac, hello — The sun. — Aphelion, he- 
liacal, heliotrope. 

{Hemera — rjixepa), emer — A day. — Ephemeral. 

{Holos — 'okoq), ol — Whole. — Cathohc. 

{Hiidor — i}(5a)p), hydra, hydro — Water. — Hydra, hydropathy. 

{Histemi — larriixL), stas, stat, state, ste?n — To place, to stand. — 
Ecstasy, statics, apostate, system. 

i^Lambanein — \a\i^dvsLv), lable — To take, to seize. — Syllable. 

{Legein — "keyeiv), lect, lexic — To choose, to speak. — Eclectic, 
lexicon. 

{Leipein — 2,ei.iTEiv), lipse, lipt — To leave. — Eclipse, elliptic. 

{Lithos — 2.ldog), litho — A stone. — Lithograph. 

{Logos — 'koyoq), log, logue — A word, a description. — Logic, 

epilogue. 

{Luein — 'kvuv), lys, lyze — To loosen. — Analysis, analyze. 
E. E.— 9. 



98 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

{Meter — /^vtvp), fnetro — A mother. — Metropolis. 

{Me iron — (lerpov), meter, metr, metric — A measure. — Diame- 
ter, symmetry, metrical. 

{Mikros — jiiKpog), micro — Small. — Microscope. 

{Mimos — ijufioq), 7ni?n, mijne — An imitator. — Mimic, panto- 
mime. 

{Monos — iJ.6vog), 7nonas, 7nonast — In solitude. — Monastery, 
monastic. 

{Noinos — vojuoc), noini — A law. — Antinomian. 

{Ode — cJ(5^), od, ode — A song. — Prosody, epode. 

{Odos — bdoq), od, odo, odus — A way. — Method, odometer, 
exodus. 

{Oikos — oLKoq), ish, ocese, ochi — A house. — Parish, diocese, 
parochial. 

{Onoma — bvojua), onym — A name. — Metonymy. 

[Opso7nai — dipoptai), ops^ opsis, opi — To see. — Autopsy, syn- 
opsis, optics. 

{Orthos — bpdog), ortho — Straight, right. — Orthography. 

{Pais — TraZf), peda — A boy. — Pedagogics. 

{Paiei7t — rraietv), pcEst — To strike. — Anapaest. 

{Pathos — irddog), path, pathet, patho, pathos — Suffering. — 
Antipathy, pathetic, pathology, pathos. 

{Peptein — neirTEiv), peps, pept — To cook, to digest. — Pepsine, 
dyspeptic. 

{Phai7tei7t — (palveiv), phaTi, phafit — To show, to appear. — 
Diaphanous, phantom. 

{Phasis — ^d(Tff), phasis — An appearance, a declaration. — 
Emphasis. 

{Phemi—(j)ri^i), phe, phes, phet—To say, to tell.— Prophecy, 
prophesy, pfophet. 

{PhereiTi — (pepeiv), pher, phor— To bear. — Periphery, meta- 
phor. 

{Philos — ^i'Aof ), philo — Fond of. — Philology. 

{Phone — i^ovri), phoTt, phoTiet, phono — A sound. — Euphony, 
phonetic, phonograph. 

{Phos — (i)djc), phos, photo — Light. — Phosphorous, photograph. 

{Phrasis—(ppdGLq), phrase, phrast—A phrase.— Periphrase, 
paraphrastic. 



GREEK ROOT-WORDS. 99 

{Phren — ^pvv)^ frant, frenz, phreno — The mind. — Frantic, 
frenzy, phrenology. 

{Pkusis — fvaig), phys, physio — Nature. — Physics, physiologist. 

{Plassein — "Klaaazw), plast — To mold. — Plastic. 

{Pneuma — rrvevfia), pneumat^ pneumon — The breath,' the 
air. — Pneumatics, pneumonia. 

{Polein — Tculeiv), pol — To sell. — Monopoly. 

{Polls — Tvolig), polls, pollt — A city. — Metropolis, politics. 

{Pous — Tvovg), podes — A foot. — Antipodes. 

{Psuche — tfjvxv)} psych, psycho — The soul. — Psychic, psy- 
chology. 

{Pur — 7ri)p), pyre^ pyro — Fire. — Empyreal, pyrotechnics. 

{Schole — axoM]), schol, school — Leisure. — Scholar, school. 

{Scopos — cr/coTTOf), scop, scope — A watcher, a mark. — Epis- 
copal. 

{Sophos — ao(p6g), soph — Wise. — Philosopher. 

{Sphalra — uipalpa), spher, sphere — A sphere. — Spherical, 
hemisphere. 

{Stenos — aTEvog), steno — Narrow, close. — Stenographer. 

{Strophe — arpo^r}), strophe — A turn. — Apostrophe. 

{Techne — rexvv), technlc, techno — Art, skill. — Technical, 
technology. 

( Tekton — riKTuv), techt — A builder. — Architect. 

{Theatron — Oearpov), theater — A place for shows. — Amphi- 
theater. 

( Thesis — deaic), thesis — A placing, a proposition. — Antithesis. 

{Theos — ^eoc), the, theo — A god. — Atheism, theology. 

{Tonos — Tovoq^, ton, tone — A string, a note. — Tonic, intone. 

( Tropos — rpo'Koq), trop, trope — A turn. — Tropic, heliotrope. 

( Tupos — rvTzoq), typ, type, typo — A mold, a mark. — Typical, 
prototype, typography. 

{Zelos — C^^o?). ^^(^l — Ardor. — Zealot. 

{Zoon — Cwov), zoo — An animal. — Zoology. 



lOO 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Primary Analysis of Words Used as Illustrations in 

Derivation. 



abbey, abbe-y. 
abduct, ab-ducere. 
aberration, ab-err are-ion. 
abjure, ab-jurare. 
ablution, ab-luere-ion. 
aboard, a-board. 
abortive, ab-oriri. 
abrogate, ab-rogare. 
abrupt, ab-rumpere. 
abstract, abs-trahere. 
abyss, a-bussos. 
accede, ad-cedere. 
accent, ad-cantare. 
accept, ad-capere. 
accomplish, ad-cum-plere. 
accord, ad-cor. 
a.ccretioji, ad-crescere-ion. 
accrue, ad-crescere. 
acerbity, acer-ity. 
achieve, a-caput. 
acid, acer-id. 
acquaint, ad-noscere. 
acrid, acer-id. 
acrimony, acer-mony. 
actio7i, agere-ion. 
actual, agere-al. 
adjacent, ad-jacere-ent. 
adjective, ad-jacere-ive. 
admire, ad-mirare, 
admonish, ad-monere-ish. 
adore, ad-orare. 
advent, ad-venire. 
adversary, ad-vertere-ary. 
advertise, ad-vertere-ise. 
advice, ad-videre. 
advocate, ad-vocare-ate. 
jEneid, ^neas-id. 
CBsthetic, assthetikos. 
affable, ad-fari-able. 
affix, ad-figere. 
afterdijiner, after-dinner. 
aftergrowth, after-growth. 



aftermost, after-most. 
agent, agere-ent. 
aggress, ad-gradi. 
aggressive, ad-gradi-ive. 
agitate, agere-ate. 
agreeable, a-gratus-able. 
aimless, aestimare-less. 
alien, alius-en. 
allege, ad-legare. 
allude, ad-ludere. 
alluvial, ad-luere-al. 
ally, ad-ligare. 
amanuensis, a-manus-ensis. 
amateur, amare-eur. 
amatory, amare-ory. 
a?7tbie7tt, amb-ire. 
ainbiguous, ambi-agere-ous. 
ambush, in-bush. 
amenable, amare-able. 
ajniable, amare-able. 
amicable, amare-able. 
ajnorous, amare-ous. 
amphibious, amphi-bios-ous. 
amphitheater, amphi-theatron. 
ampittate, amb-putare-ate. 
anagram, ana-graphein. ' 
analogy, ana-legein-y. 
analysis, ana-luein-is. 
analyze, ana-luein. 
anapcBst, ana-paiein. 
anarchy, an-arch-y. 
ancestor, ad-cedere-or. 
aneurism, ana-eurnnein-ism. 
angelic, aggelos-ic. 
animalcule, anima-cule. • 
ajiimate, an i ma-ate. 
a7iimosity, anima-ity. 
annals, annus-al. 
annex, ad-nectere. 
anniversary ,2Lwr\\is-\QrX.tx^-2xy . 
annual, annus-al. 
annul, in-nullus. 



ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 



lOI 



antarctic, anti-arctikos. 
anticipation, anti-capere-ion. 
antino7niaji, anti-nomos-an. 
antipathy^ anti-pathos-y. 
antipodes, anti-pous. 
a7itithesis, anti-thesis. 
aphelion, apo-helios-on. 
apocalypse, apo-kaluptein. 
apocalyptic, apo-kaluptein-ic. 
apochryphal, apo-kruptein-al. 
apogee, apo-ge. 
apology, apo-logos-y. 
apostate^ apo-histemi. 
apparatus, ad-parare. 
apparel, ad-par-el. 
apparition, ad-parere-ion» 
appeal, ad-pellere. 
appear, ad-parere. 
appellant, ad-pellere-ant. 
append, ad-pendere. 
appetite, ad-petere-ite. 
apply, ad-plicare. 
appoint, ad-pungere. 
apposite, ad-ponere. 
apprehend^ ad-prehendere. 
apprentice, ad-prehendere. 
approve, ad-probare. 
aquafortis, aqua-fortis. 
aquatic, aqua-atic. 
aqueous^ aqua-ous. 
archbishop, arch-epi-scopos. 
archetype, arch-tupos. 
architect, arch-tekton. 
arise, a-rise. 

annaTnent, armare-ment. 
armistice, armare-sistere. 
army, armare-y. 
arrogate, ad-rogare. 
o.rtful, ars-ful. 
artifice, ars-facere. 
artillery, ars-ery. 
artisan, ars-an. 
ascend, ad-scandere. 
aspect, ad-specere, 
assail, ad-salire. 
assault, ad-salire. 
assess, ad-sedere. 



assets, ad-satis. 
assiduous^ ad-sedere-ous. 
assigjt, ad-signum. 
assize, ad-sedere. 
assume, ad-sumere. 
astrology, astron-legein-y. 
astrono77iy, astron-nomas-y. 
atheism, a-theos-ism. 
atone, at-one. 
attai?!^ ad-tangere. 
atte7nper, ad-temperare. 
attend, ad-tendere. 
attribute, ad-tribuere. 
auction, augere-ion. 
audible, audire-ible. 
audience, audire-ence. 
auditor, audire-or. 
augnient, augere-ment. 
author, augere-or. [phein-y. 
autobiography^ auto-bios-gra- 
autocrat, auto-kratos. 
autograph, auto-graph ein. 
autopsy, auto-opsomai. 
auxiliary, augere-ary. 
ave?iue, ad-venire. 
average, habere-age. 
averse, ab-vertere. 
away, a-way. 

bailiwick, bailiff-wick. 
ballot, ball-ot. 
barber, barba-er. 
barony, baron-y. 
because, be-cause. 
befriend, be-friend. 
behead, be-head. 
bellicose^ bellum-ose. 
belligerent, bellum-gerere-ent. 
benefit, bene-facere. 
benevolence, bene-velle-ence. 
be7ievolent, bene-velle-ent. 
benighted, be-night-ed. 
benisojt, bene-dicere. 
bes77iear, be-smear. 
betray, be-tradere. 
betroth, be-troth. 
Betty, Bett-y. 



I02 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



beverage, bibere-age. 
bibber, bibere-er. 
biennial, bi-annus-al. 
binomial, bi-nomen-al. 
biology, bio's-legein-y. 
bishopric, epi-scopos-ric, 
blessed, bless-ed. 
blithesome, blithe-some. 
bolster, bole-ster. 
bravely, brave-ly. 
by-path, by-path. 
bystander, by-stander. 
by-word, word. 

cadence, cadere-ence. 
canticle, cantare-cle. 
caitiff, capere-iff. 
capable, capere-able. 
capacious, capere-acious. 
cape, caput. 
capital, caput-al. 
capitation, caput-ion. 
capitulate, caput-ate. 
captain, caput-ain. 
captious^ capere-ous. 
captor, capere-or. 
cardiac, kardia-ac. 
carnage, caro-age. 
carnal, caro-al. 
carrion, caro-on. 
casement, capere-ment. 
cashier, capere-ier. 
casket, capere-et. 
catalogue, cata-logos. 
catcher, capere-er. 
catholic, cata-holos. 
caustic, kaiein-ic. 
cauterize, kaiein-ize. 
cavalcade, caballus-ade. 
cavalier, caballus-er. 
cavalry, caballus-ry. 
cave, cavus. 
cavity, cavus-ity. 
cellar, celare-ar. 
center, kentron. 
centrifugal, kentron-fugere-al. 
cessation, cedere-ion. 
chanting, cantare-ing. 



chapter, caput-er. 
charnel, caro-el. 
chattel, caput-el. 
chevalier, caballus-er. 
chieftain, caput-ain. 
Chinese, China-ese. 
chirography, cheir-graphein-y. 
chivalry, caballus-ry, 
choleric, chole-ic. 
chronic, chronos-ic. 
chronometer, chronos-metron. 
circuit, circum-ire. 
circumscribe, circum-scribere. 
circujnspect, circum-specere. 
circumstance, circum-stare. 
citizen, civis-en. 
city, civis-y. 
civic, civis-c. 
civil, civis-il. 
clai?nant, clam are-ant. 
clamorous, clamare-ous. 
clarify, clarus-facere. 
clause, claudere. 
clearness, clarus-ness. 
clemency, clemens-cy. 
cloister, clandere-ter. 
clothing, cloth-ing. 
coagulate, cum-agere-ate. 
cogent, cum-agere. 
cognate, cum-nasci. 
cogiiisance, cum-noscere-ance. 
cognition, cum-noscere-ion. 
cognomen, cum-nomen. 
colleague, cum-legare. 
collect, cum-legere. 
colloquial, cum-loqui-al. 
colloquy, cum-loqui-y. 
colony, colere-y. 
comfort, cum-fortis. 
C07nmerce, cum-mercari. 
comminution, cum-minor-ion. 
commodious, cum-modus-ous. 
commute, cum-mutare. 
compare, cum-parare. 
coinpatible, cum-pati-ible. 
compeer, cum-par. 
compendious, cum-pendere-ous. 



ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 



103 



compensate^ cum-pendere-ate. 
complacent, cum-placere-ent. 
complai?i, cum-plangere. 
complaisant, cum-placere-ant. 
complex, cum-plicare. 
complia7ice, cum-plere-ance. 
component, cum-ponere-ent. 
compute, cum-putare. 
conceal, cum-celare. 
conceit, cum-capere. 
concern, cum-cernere. 
concise, cum-caedere. 
conclusio7i, cum-claudere-ion. 
concourse, cum-currere. 
concrete, cum-crescere. 
condemn, cum-damnum. 
C07idig7i, cum-dignus. 
condition, cum-dicere-ion. 
condole, cum-dolere. 
conduit, cum-ducere. 
conflict, cum-fligere. 
confound, cum-fundere. 
C07igratulate, cum-gratus-ate. 
co7ifoi7itly , cum-jungere-ly. 
co7ifuratio7i, cum-jurare-ion. 
C07i7iect, cum-nectere. 
C07iquer, cum-quasrere. 
consecrate, cum-sacrare. 
consecutive, cum-sequi-ive. 
C07ise7it, cum-sentire. 
consequent, cum-sequi-ent. 
consist, cum-sistere. 
co7tspicuous, cum-specere-ous. 
constancy, cum-stare-cy. 
C07istant, cum-stare. 
constrai7i, cum-stringere. 
co7istrue, cum-struere. 
co7isu77iption, cum-sumere-ion. 
contagion, cum-tangere-ion. 
conta77iinate, cum-tangere-ate. 
conte77iporaneous, cum-tempus- 

ous. 
contiguous, cum-tangere-ous. 
conti7igent, cum-tangere-ent. 
contradict, contra-dicere. 
contributio7i, cum-tribuere-ion. 
controversy, contra-vertere-y. 



controvert, contra-vertere. 
convene, cum-venire. 
convenient, cum-venire-ent. 
converge, cum-vergere. 
convi7ice, cum-vincere. 
convivial, cum-vivere-al. 
convoke, cum-vocare. 
co-operate, cuni-operari. 
cordial, cor-al. 
corporal, caput-al. 
corporatio7i, corpus-ate-ion. 
corps, corpus. 
corpse, corpus. 
corpulc7ice, corpus-lence. 
corpule7it, corpus-ent. 
corpuscle, corpus-cle. 
correct, cum-regere. 
corridor, currere-dor, 
corrupt, cum-rumpere. 
corsair, currere-air. 
corse, corpus. 
corset, corpus-et. 
corselet, corpus-let. 
cost, cum-stare. 
counteract, contra-agere. 
coimterfeit, contra-facere. 
counterpoise, contra-pendere. 
countess, count (cum-ire) ess. 
courier, currere-er. 
courtesy, court-y. 
covenant, cum-venire-ant. 
crafty, craft-y. 
crede7ice, credere-ence. 
credit, credere-it. 
creditable, credere-able. 
credulous, credere-ous. 
creed, credere. 
cresce7it, crescere-ent. 
criterion, krites-on. 
critic, krites-ic. 
criticise, krites-ise. 
cross, crux. 
crucial, crux-al. 
crusade, crux-ade. 
crypt, kruptein. [ia. 

cryptoga77iia, kruptein-garaos- 
cultivate, colere-ate. 



104 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



culture, colere-ure. 
curate^ cura-ate. 
curator, cura-or. 
curious, cura-ous. 
curricle, currere-cle. 
cycloid., kuklos-id. 

da7nage, damnum-age. 
damnable, damnum-able. 
damnation, damnum-ion. 
darkling, dark-ling. 
date, dare. 
decay, dis-cadere. 
decease, dis-cedere. 
deceive, dis-capere. 
deciduous., dis-cadere-ous. 
declaration, dis-clarus-ion. 
declare, dis-clarus. 
decrease, dis-crescere. 
decree.^ dis-cernere. 
defeat, dis-facere. 
defence, dis-fendere. 
deficit, dis-facere. 
define, dis-finis. 
defijiite, dis-finis-ite. 
deflower, dis-flos-er. 
defluxion, dis-fluere-ion. 
defray.^ dis-frangere. 
degrade, dis-gradi. 
deign, dignus. 
delegate, dis-legare. 
deluge, dis-luere. 
demagogue, demos-agein. 
demerit, dis-merere. 
demigod, demi-god. 
demise, dis-mittere. 
Deniocrat, demos-kratos. 
demon ^ daemon. 
demoniac, d^emon-ac. 
deinure, dis-mos. 
denote, dis-noscere. 
dentist, dens-ist. 
dentition, dens-ion. 
depart., dis-pars. 
depend, dis-pendere. 
depletion, dis-plere-ion. 
deploy, dis-plicare. 



depositary., dis-ponere-ary. 
depot, dis-ponere. 
depress., dis-premere. 
deprive, dis-privare. 
deputy, dis-putare-y. 
deride., dis-ridere. 
descant, dis-cantare. 
descend, dis-scandere. 
descry, dis-scribere. 
desolate, dis-solus-ate. 
despair, dis-sperare. 
despise, dis-specere. 
despite., dis-specere. 
destitute, dis-stare. 
destroy^ dis-struere. 
desultory, dis-salire-ory. 
devil, dia-ballein. 
devote, dis-vovere. 
devotion, dis-vovere-ion. 
devour, dis-vorare. 
devout, dis-vovere. 
diagnosis, dia-gnonai-sis. 
diagram, dia-graphein. 
dialogue, dia-logos. 
diameter, dia-metron. 
diaphanous, dia-phainein-ous. 
diffuse, dis-fundere. 
digest, dis-gerere. 
diligent, dis-legere-ent. 
dilute, dis-luere. 
dimension, dis-metiri-ion. 
diminish, dis-minor-ish. 
diocese, dia-oikos. 
discernment, dis-cernere-ment. 
discorda?tt, dis-cor-ant. 
discount, dis-putare. 
discreet, dis-cernere. 
discursive, dis-currere-ive. 
disdain, dis-dignus. 
disjniss, dis-mittere. 
disparity, dis-par-ity. 
dispel, dis-pellere. 
dispense, dis-pendere. 
display, dis-plicare. 
displease, dis-placere. 
disquisition , di s-qu £erere-ion . 
dissident, dis-sedere-ent. 



ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 



105 



dissolve, dis-solvere. 
distill, dis-stillare. 
distillery, dis-stillare-ary. 
distress, dis-stringere. 
disturb, dis-turbare. 
divergence, dis-vergere-ence. 
divergent, dis-vergere-ent. 
divert, dis-vertere. 
divorce, dis-vertere. 
dolorous, dolere-ous. 
doxology, doxa-legein-y. 
drunkard, drink-ard. 
drtmkefi, drink-en. 
ducal, ducere-al. 
^z^c/z.fi'^, ducere-ess. 
dukedom, ducere-dom. 
duress, diirus-ess. 
dynamic, dunamis-ic. 
dynasty, dunamis-ty. 
dyspepsia, dys-peptein-ia. 
dyspeptic^ dys-peptein-ic. 



eager, acer-er. 
eccentric, ec-kentron-ic. 
eclectic, ec-legein-ic. 
eclipse, ec-leipein. 
ecstasy , ec-histemi-y. 
edition, ex-dare-ion. 
effect, ex-facere. 
efficacy, ex-facere-cy. 
efflorescence, ex-flos-ence. 
effulgence, ex-fulgere-ence. 
effidgent, ex-fulgere. 
effuse, ex-fundere. 
ejaculate, ex-jacere-ate. 
eject, ex-jacere. 
elaborate, ex-laborare-ate. 
elegant, ex-legere-ant. 
ellipse, em-leipein. 
elliptic, em-leipein-ic. 
elocution, ex-loqui-ion. 
embower, in-bower. 
emotion, ex-movere-ion. 
e77iperor, in-parare-or. 
emphasis, em-phasis. 
empyreal, em-pyr-al. 



endogen, endo-gignomai. 
endure, in-durus. 
enemy, in-amare-y. 
energy, em-ergon. 
engender, in-gignere-er. 
engineer, in-genus-eer. 
ensign, in-signum. 
ensue, in-sequi. 
enthusiast, en-theos-ast. 
entity, esse-ty. 
ephenieral, epi-hemera-al. 
epicycle, epi-kuklos. 
epidemic, epi-demos-ic. 
epilogue, epi-logos. 
episcopal, epi-scopos-al. 
epistle, epistola. 
epistolary, epistola-ary. 
epistolatory, epistola-tory. 
epoch, epi-echein. 
epode, epi-ode. 
equal, aequus-al. 
equality^ aequiis-al-ity. 
equation, asquus-ion. 
equanitnity , asqu-anima-ity. 
equestrian, equus-an. 
equine, equus-ine. 
equinox, aequus-nox. 
equitable, aequus-able. 
equivalent, aequi-valere. 
erroneous, errare-ous. 
escheat, ex-cadere. 
espouse, ex-spondere. 
espy, ex-specere. 
essence, esse-ence. 
essential, ex-esse-al. 
esteem, aestimare. 
estimate, aestimare-ate. 
ethics, ethos-ics. 
eulogy^ eu-logos-} . 
euphony, eu-phone-y. 
evangelist, eu-aggelos-ist. 
evangelize, eu-aggelos-ize. 
evident, ex-videre-ent. 
exceed, ex-cedere. 
excite, ex-clamare-ion. 
excluded, ex-claudere-ed. 
excrement, ex-cernere. 



io6 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



execrate, ex-sacrare. 
execute, ex-sequi. 
executrix^ ex-sequi-trix. 
exempt, ex-emere. 
exequies, ex-sequi. 
exodus^ ec-odos. 
exogen, ec-gignomai. 
exist, ex-sistere. 
experiejice, ex-periri-ence. 
experiment, ex-periri-ment. 
expert, ex-periri. 
expire, ex-spirare. 
explicate, ex-plicare-ate. 
exploit, ex-plicare. 
expound, ex-ponere. 
expression, ex-premere-ion. 
expunge, ex-pungere, 
extend, ex-tendere. 
extol, ex-tollere. 
extravagant, extra-vagari-ant. 
exult, ex-salire. 

fabulous, fari-ous. 
facile, facere-ile. 
factitious, facere-ous. 
factor, facere-or. 
faculty, facere-ty. 
fallacy, fallere-cy. 
fallible^ fallere-ible. 
falsehood, fallere-hood. 
falsify, fallere-facere. 
fa7ni7ie, fames-ine. 
fashion, facere-ion, 
fatal, fari-al. 
fatality^ fari-ity. 
fateful, fari-ful. 
fattefi, fat-en. 
favor, favere-or. 
favorite, favere-ite. 
feasible, facere-ible. 
febrile, febris-ile. 
feigning, fingere-ing. 
feint, fingere. 
fertile, ferre-ile. 
fever, febris-er. 
fat, facere. 
fiction, fingere-ion. 



figure, fingere-ure. 
final, finis-al. 
finish, finis-ish. 
firmament, firmus-ment. 
fiaxen, flax-en. 
fiexible, flectere-ible. 
fiinching, flectere-ing. 
fioral^ flos-al. 
fiorist, flos-ist. 
fioitr, flos. 
fiower, flos-er. 
fiuctuate, fluere-ate. 
fiuent, fluere-ent. 
forbid, for-bid, 
forester, foris-er. 
forestry, foris-ry. 
foretell, fore-tell. 
forgive, for-give. 
forlorn, for-lorn, 
forthcoming, forth-coming. 
forthwith, forth-with. 
foundatio7i, fundus-ate-ion. 
founder, fundus-er. 
fracture, frangere-ure. 
fragile, frangere-ile. 
frailty, frangere-ty. 
fraiigible, frangere-ible. 
frantic, phren-ic. 
fraternal, frater-al. 
fratricide, frater-caedere. 
fraudulent, fraus-lent. 
frenzy, phren-y. 
friarly, frater-ly. 
friendship, friend-ship. 
frigid, frigus-id. 
fugitive, fugere-ive. 
fulsome, full-some. 
fund, fundus. 

fundame7ital, fundus-ment-al. 
futile, fundere-ile. 
futurity, esse-ty. 

gainsay, against-say. 
ga77ieso77ie, game-some. 
garlic, gar-lie. 
generate, genus-ate. 
genial, genus-al. 



ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 



107 



genital, gerere-al. 
genius, genus. 
genuine, genus-ine. 
genus, genus. 
geography, ge-graphein-y. 
geometry, ge-meter-y. 
gestation, gerere-ion. 
gesticulate, gerere-ate. 
gist, jacere. 
glossary, glossa-ary. 
glottis, glossa-is. 
gnome, gnonai. 
Godhead^ God-head. 
godly, god-ly. 
gosling, goose-ling. 
graceful, gratus-ful. 
gradual, gradi-al. 
gratify, gratus-facere. 
gratis, gratus. 
gratuitous, gratus-ous. 
gratuity, gratus-ity. 
guiltless, guilt-less. 
gymnasium, gumnos-um. 
gymnastic, gumnos-ic. 

habit, habere-it. 
habitude, habere-tude. 
harmless, harm-less. 
hardship, hard-ship. 
hateful, hate-full. 
hatred, hate-red. 
headlong, head-long. 
heathenish, heath-en-ish. 
heliacal, helios-al. 
heliotrope, helios-tropos. 
hemisphere, hemi-sphaira. 
hemlock, hem-lock. 
heptagon, hepta-gonia. 
heroic, heros-ic. 
heroism, heros-ism. [ous. 

heterogeneous, hetero - genos - 
hexa7neter, hexa-metron. 
hillock, hill-lock. 
hireling, hire-ling. 
holocaust^ holos-kaiein. 
homeward, home-ward. 
homogeneous, homo-genos-ous. 



hor7ibeam, horn-beam. 
horned, horn-ed. 
hostage, hostis-age. 
hostelry, hostel-ry. 
hostile, hostis-ile. 
hydra, hudor. 

hydropathy, hudor-pathos-y. 
hyperbole, hyper-ballein. 
hypercritical, hyper-krites-al. 
hyphen, hypo-eis. 
hypocrisy^ hypo-kreinein-y. 
hypocrite, hypo-krites. 

ignoble, in-noscere. 
ignore, in-noscere. 
illegal, in-lex-al. 
illude, in-ludere. 
illusio7i, in-ludere-ion. 
imbed, im-bed. 
imbibe, in-bibere. 
immense, in-metiri. 
immortal, in-mors-al. 
impede, in-pes. 
impediment, in-pes-ment. 
imperial, in-parare-al. 
impetuous, in-petere-ous. 
implement, in-plere-ment. 
iinport, in-portare 
impost, in-ponere. 
impotent, in-posse-ent. [able. 
impregnable, in - prehendere - 
imprint, in-premere. 
imprison, in-prehendere-on. 
impromptu^ in-pro-emere. 
impunity, in-pcena-ity. 
inborn, in-born. 
incident, in-cadere-ent. 
incision, in-caedere-ion. 
inclement, in-clemens. 
inclose, in-claudere. 
inclosure, in-claudere-ure. 
include, in-claudere. 
incorporate, in-corpus-ate. 
increment, in-crescere-ment. 
incur, in-currere. 
indelible, in-delere-ible. 
indemnify , in-damnum-facere. 



io8 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



indigenous, indi-gignere-ous. 
indite, in-dicere. 
indolence, in-dolere-ence. 
indurate, in-durus-ate. 
inert, in-ars. 

inexorable, in-exorare-able. 
infancy, in-fari-cy. 
i?tfantry, in-fari-ty. 
infinity, in-finis-ty. 
infir??t, in-firmus. 
ingrate, in-gratus. 
ingredient, in-gradi-ent. 
i7iimical, in-amare-al. 
itiiquity, in-aequus-ty. 
injurious, in-jus-ous. 
iiinocent, in-nocere-ent. 
inquest^ in-quaerere. 
insidious, in-sedere-ous. 
institutio7i, in-stare-ion, 
instrument, in-struere-ment. 
insure, in-se-cura. 
intact, in-tangere. 
inter, in-terra. 
interest, inter-esse. 
/;z/^r^^//«//^;z,inter-pellere-ion. 
interstice, inter-sistere. 
vitervene^ inter-venire. 
intone, in-tonos. 
i?itroduce, intro-ducere. 
intumescence, in-tumere-ence. 
inure, in-opus. 
invidious, in-videre-ous. 
invincible, in-vincere-ible. 
irregular, in-regere-ar. 
irruptioti, in-rumpere-ion. 
Israelite, Israel-ite. 
issue, ex-ire. 

jester, gerere-er. 

Jesuit, Jesus-it. 

joist, jacere. 

judicial, judicium-al. 

junction, jungere-ion. 

jurisdiction, j us-dicere-ion. 

jurist, jus-ist. 

jury, jurare-y. [ion. 

juxtaposition, j uxta - ponere - 



kingdom, king-dom. 
knowledge, know-ledge. 

laboratory^ laborare-ory. 
lambkin, lamb-kin. 
lassie, lass-ie. 
lateral, latus-al. 
latitude, latus-tude. 
laudable, laus-ble. 
laughable, laugh-able. 
lawyer, law-yer. 
layer, lay-er. 
leaflet, leaf-let. 
league^ ligare. 
legacy, legare-cy. 
legal, lex-al. 
legatee^ legare-ee. 
legejtdary, legere-ary. 
legislate, lex-tollere. 
legitimate, lex-ate. 
lemonade, lemon-ade. 
letter, litera. 
lexicon, legein-on. 
liable, ligare-able. 
liberty, liber-ty. 
lien, ligare, 
Ugamejit, ligare-ment. 
ligature, ligare-ure. 
likewise, like-wise. 
literal, litera-al. 
literature, litera-ure. 
lithograph, lithos-graphein. 
logic, logos-c. 
loquacious, loqui-acious. 
lordship, lord-ship. 
loved, love-ed. 
ludicrous, ludere-ous. 

maintain, manus-ain. 
malady, malus-y. 
malediction, malus-dicere-ion. 
malevolent, mal-velle-ent. 
malformatio7i, mal-formare-ion . 
malicious, malus-ous. 
malignity, malus-ity. 
malison, malus-dicere. 



ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 



109 



maltreat, mal-trahere. 
manacle, manus-cle. 
manage, manus-agere. 
manhood, man-hood. 
mafiifest, m anus-fend ere. 
manifold, manus-fold. 
7nankind, man-kind. 
manual, manus-al. 
manumit, manus-mittere. 
marine, mare-ine. 
maritime, mare-time. 
7tiass, mittere. 
marvelous, mirare-ous. 
m,aternal, mater-al. 
matricide, mater-caedere. 
matriculate^ mater-tollere. 
matrimony, mater-mony. 
matrix, mater. 
matron, mater. 
jfieasure, metiri-ure. 
medicine, mederi-ine. 
meditate, mederi-ate. 
7ne77ioir, memor. 
77ie77iory, memor-y. 
77tenace, minacia. 
77tensuratio7tj metiri-ion. 
77iercantile, mercari-ile. 
77iercer, mercari. 
77iercha7idise, mercari-ise. 
7nerchant, mercari-ant. 
7nessage, mittere-age. 
77ietaphor, meta-pherein. 
77iete7)ipsychosis, meta - em - 

psuche. 
77iethod, meta-ode. 
meto7iymy, meta-onoma-y. 
77ietrical, metron-al. 
7netropolis, meter-polis. 
77iicroscope, mikros-scopos. 
7nidnight, mid-night. 
77iii7iic, mimos-ic. 
77tinister, minor-ter. 
7ni7tority, minor-ity. 
77mistrel, minor-el. 
77tinuet, minor-et. ' 
77iinus, minor, 
7niracle, mirare-el. 



7nisbehave, mis-behave. 
misbelieve, mis-believe. 
7nisco7iduct, mis-cum-ducere. 
?nisdeed, mis-deed. 
77iisfit, mis-facere. 
7nispri7it, mis-print. 
missile, mittere-ile. 
7nisuse, mis-uti. 
7nobile, movere-ile, 
77tode, modus. 
7noder7t, modus-ern. 
7nodulate, modus-tollere. 
7nonastery, monos-tery. 
monastic, monos-ic. 
77iongrel, mong-rel. 
77i07iitio7i, monere-ion. 
7no7iogai7iy , mono-gamos-y. 
7nonopoly, mono-polein-y. 
77iont, mons. 

7}tonument, monere-ment. 
i7ioody, modus-y. 
77ioral, mos-al. 
7nortal, mors-al. 
77tortify, mors-facere. 
77zotive, movere-ive. 
77iountain, mons-ain. 
7noimtaineer, mons-ain-eer. 
77iultiply, multus-plicare. 
77iultitude, multus-tude. 
77iuster, monere-ster. 
mutable, mutare-able. 
7nuti7iy, movere-y. 

nascent, nasci-ent. 
natal, nasci-al. 
7iatural, nasci-al. 
7ieglect, nec-legere. 
Netherlands, nether-lands. 
7iether77iost, nether-most. 
7iews7}io7iger, news-mong-er. 
7ioctur7ial, nox-al. 
no77ii7iate, n omen-ate. 
7io7ise}tse, non-sentire. 
7iorther7i, north-ern. 
notice, noscere. 
notify, noscere-facere. 
notio7i, noscere-ion. 



no 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



notorious, noscere-ous. 
noxious^ nocere-ous. 
nuisance, nocere-ance. 
null, nullus. 
nullify, nullus-facere. 

obediejit, ob-audire-ent. 

oblate, ob-latus. 

oblige, ob-ligare. 

obsequies, ob-sequi. 

obsequious, ob-sequi-ous. 

obstacle, ob-stare-cle. 

obstinate, ob-stare-ate. 

occasion, ob-cadere-ion. 

occiput, ob-caput. 

occult, ob-celare. 

occupation, ob-capere-ion. 

occupy, ob-capere-y. 

occur, ob-currere. 

octagon, octa-gonia. 

odometer, ode-metron. 

offal, off-fall. 

offense, ob-fendere. 

offer, ob-ferre. 

offset, off-set. 

offspring, off-spring. 

omit, ob-mittere. 

omnipresent, omni-presens. 

omniscient, omni-scire-ent. 

omnivorous, omni-vorare-ous. 

onset, on-set. 

onward, on-ward. 

opera, opus. 

operate, opus-ate. 

operation, opus-ion. 

oppress, ob-premere. 

optics, opsomai-ics. 

oracle, orare-cle. 

oration, orare-ion. 

ordeal, or-deal. 

oriental, oriri-al. 

origin, oriri-in. 

orison, orare. 

orthodox, orthos-doxa. 

^/'//^6'^r(2/^>^_>',orthos-graphein-y. 

ostensible, ob-tendere-ible. 

ostentation, ob-tendere-ion. 



overcoat, over-coat. 
overcurious, over-cura-ous. 
overflow, over-flow. 

painful, poena-ful, 
painter, pingere-er. 
pair, par. 

pantheon, pan-theos-on. 
pantomime, pan-mimos. 
parable, par-ballein. 
parabola, par-ballein. 
paraphrase , par-phrasis. 
paraphrastic, par-phrasis-ic. 
parasol, parare-sol. 
parcel, pars-eel. 
parental, parere-al. 
parish, par-oikos. 
parochial, par-oikos-al. 
parody, par-ode. 
parricide, pater-caedere. 
parse, pars. 
parterre, per-terra. 
partial, pars-al. 
partisan, pars-an. 
participial, pars-capere-al. 
partition, pars-ion. 
parturient, parere-ent. 
parvenu, per-venire. 
passion, pati-ent. 
paternal, pater-al. 
pathetic, pathos-ic. 
pathology, pathos-legein-y. 
pathos, pathos. 
patient, pati-ent. 
patriarch, pater-arch. 
patristic, pater-ic. 
patronage, pater-age. 
pedagogics, pais-agein-ics. 
pedagogy, pais-agein-y. 
pedal, pes-al. 
pedestrian, pes-an. 
pelt, pellere. 
penal, pcena-al. 
pe7iance, poena-ance. 
pendulous, pendere-ous. 
penitent, poena-ent. 
penult, pen-ultimus. 



ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 



Ill 



people^ populus. 
pepsine, peptein-ine. 
perceive, per-capere. 
perfect, per-facere. 
pericardimn, peri-kardia-um. 
perigee, peri-ge, 
peril, periri-il. 
periphery, peri-pherein-y. 
periphrase, peri-phrasis. 
perish, periri-ish. 
perjure, per-jurare. 
perjnit, per-mittere. 
perpendicular, per-pendere-ar. 
persecute, per-sequi. 
perspicacity , per-specere-ity. 
petition, petere-ion, 
petulant, petere-ant. 
phantasm, phainein-asm. 
phantom, phainein-om. 
philology, philo-legein-y. 
philosopher, philos-sophia-er. 
phonetic, phone-ic. 
phonograph, phone-graphein. 
phosphorus, phos-pherein. 
photograph, phos-graphein. 
phrenology, phren-legein-y. 
physics, phusis-ics. 
physiogno7ny, phusis-gnonai-y, 
physiologist, phusis-legein-ist. 
pickerel, pike-erel. 
picture, pingere-ure. 
picturesque, pingere-esque. 
piecemeal, piece-meal. 
pigment, pingere-ment. 
plague, plangere. 
plaintiff, plangere-iff. 
plait, plicare. 
plastic, plassein-ic. 
playwright, play-wright. 
pleasantry , placere-ant-ry. 
pleasure, placere-ure. 
pliant, plicare-ant. 
plot, plicare. 
pneumatics, pneuma-ics. 
pneumonia, pneuma-ia. 
poignant, pungere-ant. 
politics, polis-ics. 



polyglot, poly-glossa. 
Polygo?i, poly-gonia. 
populace, populus-ace. 
popular, populus-ar. 
portion, pars-ion. 
portrait, por-trahere. 
portray, por-trahere. 
position, ponere-ion. 
possible, posse-ible. 
postscript, post-scribere. 
pounce, pungere. 
powerful, posse-ful. 
precipice, pre-caput. 
predict, pre-dicere. 
preface, pre-fari. 
prehensile, prehendere-ile. 
prejudice, pre-judicium. 
premier, primus-er. 
preinium, pre-emere. 
preponderate, pre-pendere-ate. 
presence, pre-esse. 
preserve, pre-servare. 
pretend, pre-tendere. 
preternatural, preter-nasci-al. 
prevail, pre-valere. 
prime, primus. 
primitive, primus-ive. 
primrose, primus-rose. 
principal, primus-capere-al. 
prior, primus-or. 
pristine, primus-ine. 
private, privare. 
privilege, privare-lex. 
prize, prehendere. 
probation, probare-ion. 
probe, probare. 
probity, probare-ty. 
problem, pro-ballein. 
procreate, pro-creare. 
produce, pro-ducere. 
professor, profiteri-or. 
proficient, pro-facere-ent. 
profligate, pro-fligere-ate. 
profusion, pro-fundere-ion. 
progeny, pro-genus-y. 
prognostic, pro-gnonai. 
project, pro-jacere. 



112 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



promote, pro-movere. 
prompt, pro-emere. 
pronoun, pro-nomen. 
prophecy^ pro-phemi-cy. 
prophesy, pro-phemi-y. 
prophet^ pro-phemi, 
prorogue^ pro-rogare. 
prosody, pro-ode-y. 
prosperous, pro-sperare-ous, 
prototype, proto-tupos. 
provide, pro-videre. 
proviso, pro-videre. 
provost, pro-ponere. 
psychic, psuche-ic. 
psychology , psuche-legein-y. 
public, populus-ic. 
pulsate, pellere-ate. 
punch, pungere. 
punctual, pungere-al. 
puncture, pungere-ure. 
pungent, pungere-ent. 
purpose^ pre-ponere. 
pursuit, pre-sequi. 
push, pellere. 
putative, putare-ive. 
pyrotechnics^ pur-techne-ics. 

rapine, rapere-ine. 
rapture, rapere-ure. 
ravage, rapere-age. 
recant, re-cantare. 
receipt, re-capere. 
recess, re-cedere. 
recitation, re-ciere-ion. 
recluse, re-claudere. 
recreant, re-credere. 
recreation, re-creare-ion. 
recruit, re-crescere. 
rectify, regere-facere. 
recurrent, re-currere-ent. 
reddish, red-ish. 
redeem, re-emere. 
redoubt, re-ducere. 
reflect, re-flectere. 
reform, re-formare. 
refrigerate, re-frigus-ate. 
refuge, re-fugere. 



refund, re-fundere. 
regent, regere-ent. 
regiment, regere-ment. 
register^ re-gerere-er. 
regular^ regere-ar, 
rejoin, re-jungere. 
relate, re-tollere. 
remedy, re-mederi. 
remejnber, re-memor. 
rej7tiniscence, re-memini-ence. 
remold, re-modus. 
remove, re-movere. 
renown, re-nomen. 
repair, re-parare. 
repeat, re-petere. 
repel, re-pellere. 
repertory, re-parere-ory. 
repine, re-poena. 
replete, re-plere. 
reprieve, re-probare. 
reprimand^ re-premere. 
reproof, re-probare. 
repulse, re-pellere. 
require, re-quaerere. 
reserve, re-servare. 
reservoir, re-servare-oir. 
res-ide, re-sedere. 
resilient, re-salire-ent. 
resolute, re-solvere. 
respire, re-spirare. 
respond, re-spondere. 
retain, re-tenere. 
retrace, re-trahere. 
retreat, re-trahere. 
retrograde , retro-gradi. 
review, re-videre. 
revi7>e, re-vivere. 
ridiculous^ ridere-ous. 
ripeness, ripe-ness. 
risible, ridere-ible. 
robbery, robber-y. 
rogation, rogare-ion. 
rouge, ruber. 
rout, rumpere. 
route, rumpere. ■ 
rubicund, ruber-und. 
rubric, ruber-ic. 



ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 



113 



ruby, ruber-y. 
rule, regere. 

sacrament, sacrare-ment. 
sacredly, sacrare-ly. 
safe, salvus. 
sage, salvus. 
saifitly, sancire-ly. 
saliejtt, salire-ent. 
sally, salire. 
^alvage^ salvus-age. 
salvatiojz, salvus-ion. 
safictify, sancire-facere, 
sanctuary, sancire-ary. 
satiate, satis-ate. 
satisfactory, satis-facere-ory. 
satisfy, satis-facere. 
Savior, salvus-or. 
scan, scandere. 
scansion, scandere-ioii. 
scholar, schole-ar. 
school, schole. 
science, scire-ence. 
sciolist, scire-ist. 
scrivener, scribere-er. 
secede, se-cedere. 
second, sequi. 
secret, se-cernere. 
sect, sequi. 
sedate, sedere. 
sedentary, sedere-ary. 
sediment, sedere-ment. 
seduce, se-ducere. 
select, se-legere. 
seinivocal, semi-vocare-al. 
sensible, sentire-ible. 
sensual, sentire-al. 
sentimeiit, sentire-ment. 
separate, se-parare. 
sequence^ sequi-ence. 
servant, servare-ant. 
several, se-parare-al. 
shamefaced, shame-fast. 
shovel, shove-el. 
sideways, side-ways. 
signet, signum-et. 
signify, signum-facere. 

E. E.—IO, 



similar, similis-ar. 

simile, similis. 

si77tilitude, similis-tude. 

sinecure, sine-cura. 

singer, sing-er. 

slippery, slip-er-y. 

sojourn, sub-diurnare. 

sole, solus. 

solitary, solus-ary. 

solitude, solus-tude. 

solo, solus. 

soluble, solvere-ble. 

solution, solvere-ion. 

species, specere. 

specify, specere-facere. 

speculate, specere-ate. 

spherical, sphaira-ic-al. 

spijister, spin-ster. 

spiracle, spirare-cle. 

spirit, spirare-it. 

spongy, sponge-y. 

sponsor, spondere-or. 

stage, stare. 

standard, stand-ard. 

stanza, stare. 

state, stare. 

statics, histemi-ics. 

station, stare-ion. 

steadfast, stead-fast. [er. 

stenographer, stenos-graphein- 

still, stillare. 

strait, stringere. 

stricture, stringere-ure. 

stringent, stringere-ent. 

structure, struere-ure. 

subdue, sub-ducere. 

submit, sub-mittere. 

subpoena, sub-pcena. 

subscription, sub-scribere-ion. 

subsequent, sub-sequi-ent. 

subterfuge, subter-fugere. 

subterranean, sub-terra-an. 

subtrahend, sub-trahere. 

succeed, sub-cedere. 

succor, sub-currere. 

suffice, sub-facere. 

stiffuse, sub-fundere. 



114 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



suggest, sub-gerere. 
sullen, solus-en. 
summon, sub-monere. 
sumptuous, sumere-ous. 
sunheajn, sun-beam, 
superfluous, super-fluere-ous. 
superlative, super-tollere-ive. 
supernatural, super-nasci-aL 
supersede, super-sedere. 
superstition, super-sistere-ion. 
supple, sub-plicare. 
supply, sub-plere. 
suppress, sub-premere. 
surcease, sub-sedere. 
sur7nise, sub-mittere. 
surprise, sub-prehendere. 
survey, sub-videre. 
suspicion, sub-specere-ion. 
sustain, sub-tenere. 
syllable, syn-lambanein. 
syjnbol, syn-ballein. 
syimnetry, syn-metron-y. 
sympathy, syn-pathos-y. 
synonymous, syn-onoma-ous. 
synopsis, syn-opsomai. 
system, syn-histemi. 

tamper, temperare. 
tajtgent, tangere-ent. 
tangible, tangere-ible. 
taste, tangere. 
tax, tangere. 
technical, techne-al. 
technology, techne-legein-y. 
tetnporary , tempus-ary. 
tenable, tenere-able. 
tenantry, tenere-ant-ry. 
tenor, tenere. 
te7ise, tempus. 
tenure, tenere-ure. 
terrace^ terra-ace. 
terrestrial, terra-al. 
terrier, terra-er. 
territory, terra-ory. 
theater, theatron-er. 
theocracy, theos-kratos-cy. 
theology, theos~legein-y. 



thoroughfare, through-fare. 
tolerate, toUere-ate. 
tonic, tonos-ic. 
tradition, tradere-ion. 
traditionary, tradere-ion-ary. 
traduce, trans-ducere. 
trail, trahere. 
train, trahere. 
traitor, trader e- or. 
transcribe, trans-scribere. 
transfer, trans-ferre. 
transfix, trans-figere. 
transient, trans-ire-ent. 
translate, trans-tollere. [ion. 
trans?nutation, trans - mutare - 
transparent, trans-parere-ent. 
transpire, trans-spirare. 
transport, trans-portare. 
tropic, tropos-ic. 
tumefy, tumere-facere. 
tumult, tumere. 
turbulent, turbare-ent. 
twofold^ two-fold. 
typical, tupos-ic-al. 
typography, tupos-graphein-y. 

ulti^nate, ultimus-ate. 
ultramarine, ultra-mare-ine. 
unable, un-habere. 
unanimous, unus-anima-ous. 
undergrowth, under-growth. 
undertake, under-take. 
undress, un-dress. 
unerring, un-errare-ing. 
universal, uni-vertere-al. 
unjust, un-jus. 
unlock, un-lock. 
unruly, un-regere. 
unwise, un-wise. 
upland, up-land. 
upset, up-set. 
usage, uti-age. 
usual, uti-al. 
usury, uti-y, 
utensil, uti-iL 
utility, uti-ity. 
uttermost, utter-rnost. 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. 



115 



vagabond, vagari-bond. 
vagrant, vagari-ant. 
vaguely, vagari-ly. 
valediction^ vale-dicere-ion. 
valetudi?tary, valere-ary. 
valiant, valere-ant. 
valid, valere-id. 
valorous^ valere-ous. 
valuable, valere-able. 
value, valere. 
vanquish, vincere-ish. 
veracious, verus-ous. 
verbal, verbum-al. 
verbose, verbum-ose. 
verdict, verus-dicere. 
verify, verus-facere. 
veritable, verus-able. 
versatility, vertere-ity. 
versify, vertere-facere. 
vertex, vertere. 
viands, vivere. 
vice-regal, vice-regere-al. 
victor, vincere-or. 
vision, videre-ion. 



visual, videre-al. 
vital, vivere-al. 
vivacity, vivere-ity. 
vivid, vivere-id. 
vociferous, vocare-ferre-ous. 
volition, velle-ion. 
voluntary, velle-ary. 
voracious, vorare-ous. 
voracity, vorare-ity. 

wedlock, wed-lock. 
welfare, well-fare. 
wheelwright, wheel-wright. 
wicked, wick-ed. 
wisdom, wise-dom. 
wisest, wise-est. 
withhold, with-hold. 
withstajid, with-stand. 
woodcraft^ wood-craft. 
wooden, wood-en. 
worldling, world-ling. 

zealot, zelos-ot. 
zoology, zoon-legein-y. 



Suggestive Questions. 



Note. — The teacher can extend the number of words as far as he has 
time to give to the study of derivation. 

1 . Form as many derivatives as you can from the following 
words : ail, answer, bake, bear, believe, bijtd, burden, carve, 
chide, dip, do, drink, drive, fasten, fetter, flicker, forgive, 
frame, gape, get. 

2. Abate, advantage, appoint, array, assay, assign, avow, 
boil, chastise, cite, close, color, comfort, conceive, conquer, covet, 
cure, defend, depose, discover. 

3. Accept, acquaint, admire, atiimate, annul, appear, appre- 
hend, approve, attain, audible, clarify, compare, connect, culti- 
vate, defray, devour, digest, dilute, dissolve, disturb. 

4. Why are the following words bad hybrids ? Disburden, 



Il6 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

burdenous, embolden, enlighten, rekindle, readable, dotage, for- 
bearance, oddity, wonderment. 

5. The following words have the same primary analysis : 
give different meanings. Assail, assault ; defeat, deficit ; de- 
spise, despite ; ignoble, ignore ; matrix, matron ; natal, natural; 
parable, parabola; plot, plait; portrait, portray ; provide, 
proviso. 

6. Deduce the present meanings of the following words : 
Handsome, capacious, cellar, parcel, corridor, amateur, corpor- 
atiojt, ballot, curious, courtesy, enemy, manage, arinistice, ma- 
triculate, mortify, passion, provide, redoubt, sullen, terrier. 



CHAPTER III. 



PROSODY. 



Prosody is the art of versification. Although it 
may be, in English, based upon quantity, yet for 
all practical purposes it is better taught by means 
of accents. 

Two marks are used, by which accent or the 
want of accent is indicated. Accented syllables are 
marked by a short, horizontal line above them ; un- 
accented, by a short, curved line above them. 

A metrical combination of two or three syllables 
is called a foot. The following are the principal 
feet used in English poetry : 



Ia7nbiis . 

Trochee 

Spondee 

AnapcBst 

Dactyl 

Amphibrach 



Of these six metrical feet, the spondee is rarely 
used, and when used, only in an occasional line ; 
the amphibrach is more common, and may run 
through an entire poem; as, for instance, in "The 
Old Oaken Bucket" and "The Ride from Ghent 
to Aix." The greater part of English poetry is 

(117) 



Il8 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

written in iambic feet. The trochee gives a light, 
tripping effect to verse ; the anapcest and the dactyl 
a pleasant swing that is very musical. 

A verse is a single line of poetry. 

A stanza is a combination of two or more verses. 

A verse of two metrical feet is called a Dimeter. 

A verse of three metrical feet is called a Trmieter, 

A verse of four metrical feet is called a Tetrameter. 

A verse of five metrical feet is called a Penta7neter. 

A verse of six metrical feet is called a Hexameter. 

A verse of seven metrical feet is called a Heptameter. 

The iambic pentameter without rhyme is called 
blank verse, or the heroic measure, and is the form 
of verse used for epic and other poetical composi- 
tions requiring dignity of expression. Hexameter 
and heptameter verses do not seem well adapted to 
the English language, the effect of their form being 
to make the versification cumbersome. 

The following verses illustrate the different forms 
of metrical feet : 

Iambic. — The cur | few tolls | the knell ] of part | ing day. 

Trochaic. — Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers. 

AnapcBstic. — 'Tis the last | rose of sum | mer left bloom | ing 
alone. 

Dactylic. — Take her up [ tenderly. 

Amphibraic. — How dear to | this heart are | the scenes of | 
my childhood. 

When the verse does not contain the same foot 
throughout it is called a mixed verse. 



RULE FOR SCANNING. 1 19 

A verse which at first appears mixed can often be 
made regular by an ehsion. In the following: 

To him who, in the love of nature, holds 
Commun | ion with | her vis | ible forms, | she speaks 
A var I ious lang | uage. 

The elision of i in the next to the last syllable of 
visible, and the blending of io into jk, in various, are 
allowable in scanning. 

In heroic verse, when mixed, an anapaest usually 
takes the place of an iambus. Note the following: 

Of man's | first dis | obe ] dience, and | the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree 

Sing Heav ) enly Muse, | that on | the se | cret top 
Of Oreb 

This anapaest, however, by an elision, can be fre- 
quently shortened into an iambus. Milton has 
given great variety to the versification of his two 
epics by shifting the position of the anapaest that 
he so often uses in a verse. 

Any verse admits an additional syllable, which 
must be unaccented if iambic, anapaestic, or amphi- 
braic ; accented, if trochaic or dactylic. 

The rule for blank verse, — that it should have 
exactly ten syllables, — is not a rigid one. Shakes- 
peare frequently violates it in his plays. 

When, however, a poem is divided into stanzas, 
they should be constructed upon the same scheme. 



I20 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

As in music, so in versification, a rest is often 
very effective. Note the following : 

I'll watch I as long | for you | then. *j \ Approach. 

On the I sea and | at the | Hogue, •^ | sixteen | hundred | 

ninety | two, 
Did the | English | fight the | French, •^ | woe to | France ! 

In scanning the following selections, the best plan 
is first to mark all the accented syllables. In sepa- 
rating the syllables into feet, it is generally safe to 
start with a foot of two syllables. If this does not 
apply to the verse, it is easy to substitute a foot of 
three syllables. Except with the amphibrach, which 
can always be resolved into other feet, this will 
make the scanning a certainty. A verse of regular 
form is always preferable to a mixed verse : hence 
an amphibraic verse can be determined by its regu- 
larity. The rhymes should always be noted last. 

Bird of the wilderness, 

Blithesome and cumberless, 

Sweet be thy matin o'er moorland and lea ! 

Emblem of happiness, 

Blest is thy dwelling-place, — 

O, to abide in the desert with thee ! 

Wild is thy lay and loud, 

Far in the downy cloud, 

Love gives it energy, love gave it birth ; 

Where, on thy downy wing. 

Where art thou journeying ? 

Thy lay is in heaven, thy love is on earth. 

—Hogg. 



EXERCISES FOR SCANNING. 121 

Our very hopes belied our fears, 
Our fears our hopes belied ; 
We thought her dying when she slept, 
And sleeping when she died. — Hood. 

Lives of great men all remind us 

We can make our lives sublime, 

And, departing, leave behind us 

Footprints on the sands of time. — Lo7igfellow. 

Have you read in the Talmud of old, 

In the legends the Rabbins have told 

Of the limitless realms of the air, — 

Have you read it, — the marvelous story 

Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Glory, 

Sandalphon, the Angel of Prayer ? — Longfellow. 

How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, 
When fond recollection presents them to view ! 
The orchard, the meadow, the deep tangled wildwood, 
And every loved spot which my infancy knew ; 
The wide-spreading pond, and the mill that stood by it ; 
The bridge and the rock where the cataract fell ; 
The cot of my father, the dairy-house nigh it, 
And e'en the rude bucket that, hung in the well : 
The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, 
The moss-covered bucket that hung in the well. 

— Woodworth. 

Once more he stept into the street ; 

And to his lips again 

Laid his long pipe of smooth, straight cane ; 

And ere he blew three notes (such sweet 

Soft notes as yet musician's cunning 

Never gave the enraptured air), 

There was a rustling that seemed like a bustling 

E. E.— 11. 



122 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Of merry crowds justling, at pitching and hustling, 

Small feet were pattering, wooden shoes clattering, 

Little hands clapping, and little tongues chattering, 

And, like fowls in a barn-yard when barley is scattering. 

Out came the children running, 

All the little boys and girls, 

With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls, 

And sparkling eyes and teeth like pearls. 

Tripping and skipping, ran merrily after 

The wonderful music with shouting and laughter. 

— Browning. 

There are several forms of stanzas, which, on ac- 
count of their frequent use, need to be noted. 
These are : the six line Chaucerian, Spenserian, and 
the Burns' stanzas. 

The six-line stanza, which was first used in En- 
glish by Chaucer in his "Rime of Sire Thopas," 
has the first, second, fourth, and fifth verses in 
iambic tetrameter, and the third and sixth iambic 
trimeter. The rhymes are: i, 2, 4, 5 — 3, 6. The 
following is the scheme : 

W_ W_ V^_ s^__ (i) 

w_ :::_ Z- ^~ (2) 

The following is an illustration : 

He spake of plants divine and strange 
That every hour their blossoms change, 
Ten thousand lovely hues! 
With budding, fading, faded flowers. 
They stand the wonder of the bowers 
From morn to evening dews. — Wordsworth. 



STANZAS. 123 

The Chaucerian stanza was first formed by- 
Chaucer. It is a modification of the Italian eight- 
line stanza, and consists of seven iambic pentameter 
lines, the rhymes being: i, 3 — 2, 4, 5 — 6, 7. The 
scheme is as follows: 

Illustration : 

O happiness, enjoyed but of a few! 

And, if possessed, as soon decayed and done 

As is the morning's silver-melting dew 

Against the golden splendor of the sun ! 

An expired date, canceled ere well begun ; 

Honor and beauty in the owner's arms, 

Are weakly fortressed from a world of harms. 

— Shakespeare. 

The Spenserian stanza was first used by Spenser. 
This stanza gives character and dignity to the 
*' Faery Queene." It is a modification of the 
Chaucerian stanza, and consists of nine lines, the 
first eight being iambic pentameter, the ninth an 
iambic hexameter. The rhymes are: i, 3 — 2, 4, 5, 
7 — 6, 8, 9. The following is the scheme : 



(2) 
(2) 



(3) 
(2) 
(3) 
- (3) 



124 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Illustration : 

O Scotia ! my dear, my native soil ; 
For whom my warmest wish to heaven is sent: 
Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil 
Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content! 
And O ! may heaven their simple lives prevent 
From luxury's contagion, weak and vile ! 
Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent, 
A virtuous populace may rise the while, 
And stand a wall of fire around their much-loved isle. 

— Burns. 

The Burns' stanza is a modified six-line stanza. 
Burns has used it with excellent effect in several of 
his most beautiful poems. It consists of six lines, 
the first, second, third, and fifth being iambic tetra- 
meter, the fourth and sixth iambic dimeter. The 
rhymes are: i, 2, 3, 5 — 4, 6. The following is the 
scheme : 

^- ^- ^~ ^ ^ (2) 

^ - ^ - ^ ^ (2) 

Illustration : 

Still, thou art blest compared wi' me : 
The present only toucheth thee ; 
But och ! I backward cast my ee 
On prospects drear! 
And forward, though I canna see, 
I guess and fear." — Burns. 

The Sonnet is a complete poem restricted to the 
limits of fourteen iambic pentameter lines. It is 
probably of Italian origin. Petrarch, the gr:eat 



THE SONNET. 125 

Italian poet, perfected it. The division into four 
stanzas, the first two of four hnes each, and the last 
two of three lines each, is not usually indicated in 
printing. In the common Italian form, two rhymes 
belong to the first two stanzas, and three to the last. 
The arrangement of these rhymes is to give one 
rhyme to the first and last lines of the first two 
stanzas, and another to the intermediate lines. In 
the last two stanzas, each line of the third stanza 
rhymes with the corresponding lines of the fourth. 
The following grouping will illustrate this: i, 4, 5, 
8—2, 3, 6, 7—9, 12—10, 13— II, 14. 

The Shakesperian sonnet has alternate rhymes 
for the first twelve lines ; and, for the thirteenth 
and fourteenth, a rhyming couplet. 

When the Italian construction as to rhyme is not 
followed, the rhymes of the first two stanzas are 
not changed ; it is only in the last two that the 
poet gives himself any liberty. 

The difficulty in the use of the sonnet consists in 
so condensing the thoughts as to bring them not 
only within the required limits, but also subdivide 
them into the four parts indicated by the four 
stanzas. The first stanza should be introductory; 
the second embody the leading thought ; the third 
contain the suggestions growing out of the thought; 
and the fourth a summary of the subject. All our 
prominent poets have attempted sonnet writing, but 
very few of them have been successful. Some of 
Shakespeare's sonnets are nearly perfect. Words- 
worth may be considered our best sonnet writer. 

The following, which is the seventy-first of 



126 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Shakespeare's, shows, except as to rhyme, perfec- 
tion of form and thought: 

No longer mourn for me when I am dead 
Than you shall hear the surly, sullen bell 
Give warning to the world that I am fled 
From this vile world, with vilest worms to dwell. 
Nay, if you read this line, remember not 
The hand that writ it ; for I love you so 
That I in your sweet thoughts would be forgot, 
If thinking on me then should make you woe. 
O, if, I say, you look upon this verse 
When I, perhaps, compounded am with clay, 
Do not so much as my poor name rehearse; 
But let your love even with my life decay. 
Lest the wise world should look into your moan, 
And mock you with me after I am gone. 

In the following sonnet of Wordsworth's the 
suggestiveness is much broader, and hence the 
thoughts are more philosophical. The "goodly 
vessel" may, in the mind of the poet, have been 
an Alexander, a Caesar, or a Napoleon. 

With ships the sea was sprinkled far and nigh, 

Like stars in heaven, and joyously it showed: 

Some lying fast at anchor in the road, 

Some veering up and down, one knew not why. 

A goodly vessel did I then espy 

Come like a giant from a haven broad ; 

And lustily along the bay it strode, 

Her tackling rich, and of apparel high. 

This ship was naught to me nor I to her, 

Yet I pursued her with a lover's look ; 

This ship to all the rest I did prefer. 

When will she turn, and whither ? She will brook 

No tarrying ; where she comes the winds must stir. 

On went she and due north her journey took. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE SENTENCE. 



A CORRECT sentence is one in which the words 
are properly chosen ; the forms of the words in ac- 
cordance with the rules of Grammar ; and their ar- 
rangement, such as to give the best expression to 
the thought. 

I. Selection of Words. 

In the proper selection of words, it is necessary 
to consider nativey adopted^ foreign, and new words ; 
synonyms; and pleonastic, periphrastic, and para- 
phrastic expressions. 

(i) Native Words are those of pure English origin. 
Notwithstanding the wonderful growth of the En- 
glish language within the past fifty years, the vo- 
cabularies of our best recent writers contain at 
least seventy-five per cent of native words. This 
percentage will probably remain about the same, 
for the reason that native words represent the body 
of familiar thought, and can not easily be sup- 
planted. The best elements of the rugged strength 
of the language are found in the native words. 

As was seen in Chapter I, this vigor is somewhat 
due to the fact that most of the native words con- 
tain no more than two syllables. Many of the 

(127) 



128 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

adopted words, however, are as brief. The thought, 
however, is the principal element of strength. Ox 
is a stronger word than beef, because the English is 
generic and the Romance specific in meaning. So 
is it with body and person. Soul and spirit exhibit 
the same distinction ; also home and residence, room 
and chamber, cup and chalice, king and sovereign, 
waterfall and cascade, storm and tempest. In many 
cases this difference may be felt without a person's 
being able to give a reason for it. 

(2) Adopted Words are such as are taken from 
other languages than the English, and either bodily 
or by certain definite changes incorporated into the 
language. Of these, a large majority are of Latin 
origin ; a small percentage are of Greek ; and a few 
are taken from various other languages, illustrations 
of which were given in Chapter I. 

The modes of adoption are mainly six. 

(i) Without any change. — This includes a large 
number of words. Aurora, billet, cavalier, sonata, 
and tobacco are familiar illustrations. 

(2) By 07nitting the last syllable. — This is illustrated 
by august, contrary, fatal, moHal, sepulcher. 

(3) By change of spelling. — Bishop is from episco- 
pus, calico from Calicut, caravan from karwan, crown 
from coivna, palsy from paralysis, squire from escuier, 
story from historia. 

(4) By change of meaning. — Desk is from discus, a 
plate ; dunce from Du7is Scotus, a famous Irish 
scholar, who died in 1 308 ; hector from Hector, the 
celebrated Trojan hero ; quixotic from Don Quixote, 
the hero of Cervantes' romance of that name ; sil- 



FOREIGN WORDS. I2g 

hoiiette from Etienne de Silhouette, French Minister 
of Finance, 1759; spice from species, kind, sort. 

(5) By extension of meaning. ^Company originally 
meant taking meals together; idea, the look or ap- 
pearance of a thing ; influence (an astrological term), 
the virtue of the planets flowing into inferior 
creatures ; legion, a body of soldiers ; prejudice, an ex- 
amination previous to trial ; privilege, a private law. 

(6) By degradation of meaning. — Impertinent at 
first meant not belonging to ; libel, a little book ; 
officious, dutiful, serviceable ; villain, a farmer, 

(3) Foreign Words. — As the EngHsh-speaking 
people, on account of their close intercourse with 
other nations, have found occasion to use foreign 
words in order to be understood more readily, they 
have taken such words bodily into the language. 
As their incorporation was not intended, they are 
not an essential part of the language. Of these 
there are two kinds : necessary and useless. 

Necessary foreign words are such as have mean- 
ings that are not adequately expressed in English. 
They are mostly from the French, a list of which 
was given in Chapter I. 

Useless foreign words are introduced into the lan- 
guage apparently for various reasons: (i) as an 
affectation ; (2) to conceal ignorance of language ; 
(3) to show an exceptionally bad taste. Such 
words as brochure for pamphlet, atelier for studio, bad- 
inage for light talk, dejeimer for breakfast, dernier 
ressort for last resort, hauteur for haughti^iess, pafvenu 
for upstart, are good illustrations of this kind of 
words. 



130 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

(4) New Words are taken into any living lan- 
guage when the vocabulary is deficient in any par- 
ticular. In English, the dissemination of knowl- 
edge, principally by the public press, has tended, in 
a remarkable degree, to increase the number of 
words. 

In the United States this increase is largely due 
to immigration. The Dutch, German, Spanish, 
French, and Italian languages have thus contributed 
materially to the English. A large number of 
Indian words, mostly used as names of places, has 
also been incorporated into the language. In addi- 
tion, our peculiar form of government and the ne- 
cessities of frontier life, have given us many new 
words. 

One other prohfic source of new words is found 
in the language of science. This is owing to the 
wonderful advances made in all the sciences, and 
the great inventions growing out of these'. 

Any language will cease to live when its vocabu- 
lary ceases to grow. New words are therefore a 
necessity, but their addition to the language de- 
mands great caution. Two rules are important to 
be observed: (i) A new word should denote an 
entirely new conception, or a shade of meaning 
which can not be expressed by any other word in 
the language. (2) When a new word is necessary, 
it should be formed according to the analogy of the 
language. To do this, two things are requisite : (i) 
the word, if possible, should be entirely from one 
language ; (2) if this is not possible, and the word 
must be a hybrid, then the root-word should be 



NEW WORDS. 131 

foreign, and the prefixes and suffixes English. Such 
words as endearment^ laughable^ retake, are, therefore, 
incorrectly formed. 

(5) Vulgarisms. — In written composition, as well 
as in the spoken language, vulgarisms should be 
avoided ; or, if used, selected with great care. 
These words are classified as cant, provincialisms, 
colloquialisms, and slang. 

Cant words are such as have a general meaning, 
but no real, specific one. Their definition depends 
wholly upon the person who uses them. Hypoc- 
risy is not an essential part of their rhetorical mean- 
ing, for a majority of cant words are used with 
absolute sincerity. These words are mostly psycho- 
logical and theological terms. They are found, 
however, in the language of law, teaching, com- 
merce, the mechanic arts, and in familiar conversa- 
tion. 

Provincialisms are words and phrases originating 
and used in a certain district, province, or country, 
and are not familiar in other places. In the United 
States these are called Americanisms. Many have 
grown out of the surroundings of frontier life, many 
from our form of government, many from our 
social institutions, many from our defective educa- 
tion. The following list includes a sufficient num- 
ber of Provincialisms for illustration : 



Provincialism. 

Barking up the wrong tree. 
Better. Had better. 
Bogus. 
Brash. 



Definition. 

Mistaken in opinion. 
More. Ought to. 
Counterfeit. 
Brittle. Impudent. 



132 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Provincialism^ 


Definition. 


Buncombe. 


Bravado. Gaining time. 


Cahoots. 


Partnership. 


Caption. 


Heading of a composition. 


Caucus. 


Preliminary political meeting. 


Cave in. 


Give up. Yield. 


Chunky. 


Short and fleshy. 


Congressional. 


Pertaining to Congress. 


Cutter. 


Sleigh. 


Dead-head. 


One with a free admission. 


Dump. 


Unload. 


Fall. 


Autumn. [uation. 


Fix. 


Arrange. Repair. Settle. Sit- 


Flare up. 


Become angry. 


Gerrymander. 


Divide legislative districts so 




as to favor one political 




party. 


Guess. 


Think. 


Gumption. 


Skill. Ability. 


Heap. 


Very much. 


Let on. 


Pretend. 


Like. 


As. 


Lobby. 


To influence legislators. 


Log-rolling. 


Electioneering. 


Mind. 


Remember. 


Pesky. 


Mischievous. Troublesome. 


Posted. 


Well-informed. 


Presidential. 


Pertaining to the President. 


Put out. 


Annoyed. Off"ended. 


Quite an amount. 


A large amount. 


Rapids. 


A very swift current. 


Reckon. 


Suppose. 


Rising. 


More than. 


Rumpus. 


Disturbance. 


Scrouge. 


Crowd. 


Side-hill. 


Hill-side. 


Smart. 


Able. 


Smart chance. 


Strong probability. 


Spell. 


While. Time. 


Stall. 


Stick fast. 


Stave off. 


Put off". 


Swap. 


Trade. 


Take on. 


Fret. 


Tote. 


Carry. 


Ugly. 


Ill-tempered. 


Worst kind. . 


Very much. 



PROVINCIALISMS. 



133 



In England, a number of provincialisms have cor- 
responding ones in the United States: 



American. 

Baggage. 

Bank-bill. 

Blinders. 

Bookstore. 

Border. 

Bureau. 

Car (of railroad). 

Check. 

Check-rein, 

Clergyman. 

Coal. 

Corn. 

Cracker. 

Creamer. 

Deed (land). 

Dress, Frock. 

Driver. 

Drummer. 

Dry Goods. 

Fish Dealer. 

Fleshy. 

Forks of the road. 

For Sale. 

Fruit Dealer. 

Get the floor. 

Go ahead. 

Grocery. 

Hack (a vehicle). 

Hardware Merchant. 

Help. 

Horse cars. 

Hub. 

Insurance. 

In the cars. 

Janitor. 

Lines. 

Loan. 

Locate. 

Location. 

Lot. 

Lumber. 



English. 

Luggage. 

Bank-note. 

Blinkers. 

Bookseller's shop. 

Edging. 

Chest of drawers. 

Coach (of railroad). 

Draft. 

Bearing-rein. 

Minister. 

Coals. [to use corn). 

Grain (English are beginning 

Biscuit. 

Milk-jug. 

Convey (land). 

Gown (becoming American). 

Coachman. 

Commercial traveler. 

Haberdashery. 

Fishmonger. 

Stout. 

Division of the road. 

On sale. 

Fruiterer. 

Take possession of the floor. 

All right. 

Grocery shop. 

Hack (a horse). 

Ironmonger. 

Servant. 

Tram cars. 

Nave. 

Assurance. 

By the rail. 

Hall-keeper. 

Reins. 

Lend. 

Place. 

Situation. 

Field or close. 

Trash. 



134 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



American. 

Mail. 

Molasses. 

Pantaloons. 

Pitcher. 

Portage. 

Rent. 

Scow. 

Sick (in general). 

Sleigh. 

Smoke-stack. 

Stage. 

Steamboat. 

Stoop. 

Suspenders. 

Switch (of railroad). 

Vest. 

Waist (of dress). 



English. 

Post. 

Treacle. 

Trousers. 

Jug. 

Carrying-place. 

Let. 

Lighter. 

Sick (at the stomach). 

Sledge. 

Chimney. 

Stage-coach. 

Steamer. 

Outside flight of steps. 

Braces. 

Shunt (of railroad). 

Waistcoat. # 

Body (of dress). 



Colloquialisms are expressions peculiar to the 
spoken, and not to the written language. Many of 
them are abbreviations. They are allowable in 
writing when dialogue is used, if suitable to the 
subject or occasion. The following list contains 
those in common use : 

At loggerheads, a little ways, any manner of means, awful, 
ain't, bad box, bran new, back, considerable of, call to be, curry 
favor, dreadful, extras, for good and all, gab, grub, hasn't, 
head over heels, he'll, he's, helter skelter, jew down, lots, made 
out, mayn't, mustn't, mad, once in a while ^ pull the wool over 
his eyes, pretty, right, scrape, sauce, some, tell apart, tisn't, 
temper. 

Slang is nearly always of low, often of obscene 
origin. In most cases it consists of words that 
appeal directly to the imagination, usually by 
reason of the grotesque notions they excite. Slang, 
in itself, has rarely any meaning whatever, and in 
this respect is closely allied to cant. Such slang as 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. 1 35 

has a definite meaning of its own is often made a 
permanent part of the language. The greater por- 
tion of it, however, disappears after a very brief 
existence. The following list contains, perhaps the 
least offensive slang expressions : 

Cut, clear out, cracked up, cheese it, clip it, done up, done 
brown, fire out, fizzle, fiunk, gone up, gump, good chunk of, 
Jam up, kid, lick, overhaul, pucker, plunder, a precious mess, 
slope, snide, splurge, spunk, tough, tight ?natch. 

Suggestive Questions. 

1. Give the definition of a correct sentence. 

2. What must be considered in the selection of new words ? 

3. What are native words ? What percentage is found in 
the vocabulary of our hterature ? Why are they not easily 
supplanted ? What advantage does their use give a writer ? 
Give reasons for this advantage. 

4. What are adopted words ? Give the six principal modes 
of adoption, with illustrations. 

5. Why are any foreign words necessary ? Why unneces- 
sary ? 

6. What tends to increase the number of new words ? Give 
sources of new words originating in the United States. 

7. Give the rules for the formation of new words. Illustrate 
them. 

8. Define cant, provincialisfns, colloquialisms, slang. Give 
the sources of each. 

9. Mention all the provincialisms in the list that is given 
which have really ceased to be vulgarisms. 

10. In the list of English and American provincialis7ns , 
which do you prefer ? 

11. What is the difference between colloquialisms and slang? 

12. Write sentences containing the colloquialisms used in 
the text. 

13. Define slang. Select the least objectionable slang 
words in the text, and put them into sentences. 



136 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

(6) Synonyms. — In the proper selection of words, 
a great source of difficulty is in the correct use of 
synonymous words. Synonyms have one general 
meaning in common, but differ very much in spe- 
cific meaning. 

Note. — The following list contains a sufficiently large number of synonyms 
to give pupils all the practice they need in determining resemblances and dif- 
ferences of meaning, A very good plan is to construct sentences in which the 
meanings are alike, or nearly so, and follow these by the same words in senten- 
ces that show differences of meaning. The first ten groups of synonyms are 
taken as illustrations. 

(i) King James II of England abandoned (or deserted, for- 
sook, left, quit, relinquished^ his kingdom after William of 
Orange landed. 

Though abandoned by most of his army, James II was not 
deserted by many of his friends. After he left the kingdom, 
although he sometimes felt his z^ms^ forsaken, he did not quit 
his efforts to recover it ; nor did he relinquish his ideas con- 
cerning his religion. 

(2) King James I of -England did every thing he could to 
abase (or degrade, disgrace, humble) Sir Walter Raleigh, 

Sir Walter Raleigh's confidence in himself prevented his 
abasement ; his pride prevented him from humbling himself 
before the king ; although abased by unjust imprisonment, he 
was not degraded, and his execution upon frivolous charges 
was a disgrace to the king. 

(3) It was found impossible to abbreviate (or abridge^ com- 
press, condense, contract, curtail, epitomize, shorten) the essay 
without a positive injury to the expression of the thoughts 
contained in it. 

An abbreviation of the time may materially curtail the 
expense of the work. 

By compressing the gas sufficiently it may be condensed 
into a liquid. 

An abridgment of the liberties of a people leads to des- 
potism ; a contraction of the prerogatives of a ruler increases 
the freedom of a people. 



EXERCISES IN SYNONYMS. 1 37 

Cold causes the particles to co7ttract, and this shortens the 
iron rod very perceptibly. 

Editors can easily shorten a work without epitomizing it. 

(4) The man who stands before you was an abettor (or ac- 
cessory, accomplice, assistant, associate, coadjutor, colleague, 
helper, partner^ in the commission of the crime. 

If you were not an actual assistant in this dishonorable 
transaction, you were certainly an abettor. 

By these accessory means your partner may become a real 
helper. 

An accomplice may be merely a companion, and neither abet 
nor assist a criminal. 

It is my earnest wish that my old associate may become my 
colleague in the legislature ; and while there, as before, be my 
coadjutor in all times of difficulty and importance. 

(5) Lord Byron had remarkable ability (or aptitude, aptness, 
capability, capacity, endowment, faculty, gift, talent), for versi- 
fication. 

My physical ability has been much impaired by sickness, 
but this has not interfered with my aptitude for using my 
hands in modeling. 

There is an aptness of illustration in Mr. Beecher's lan- 
guage that shows his remarkable capacity for grouping words. 

The boy's capability of making himself useful will result in 
developing those faculties necessary for a successful business 
man. 

Whatever endowment of beauty and cheerfulness nature 
may bestow upon a person as a gift, his intellectual talents 
will be largely independent of them. 

(6) Thomas Carlyle's abode (or domicile, dwelling, habita- 
tion, home, residence) was at Chelsea, not far from London. 

My abode for the night was only ten miles from home. 
Such a rough habitation will make a poor domicile. 
If I were you I would not use that dwelling for a resi- 
dence. 

(7) Louis XIV of France abolished (or abrogated, ajtnulled, 
canceled, repealed, revoked) the Edict of Nantes, by which 
the Huguenots were denied freedom of worship. 

E. E.12. 



138 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

To abolish the consequences of an unjust law, it should be 
modified, or repealed. 

A custom is rarely abrogated until after its origin is forgotten. 

Should you cancel ^ki2X condition, you would annul the whole 
contract. 

Unkind words can never be revoked. 

(8) During the last years of his reign, Henry VIII of En- 
gland was an absolute (or arbitrary, despotic, dojnineering, im- 
perious, lordly, overbearing, tyrajtnical) sovereign. 

Absolute manners do not always indicate a lordly character. 
A tyrannical impulse often leads to an overbearing action. 
An arbitrary man is likely to be most despotic in his family. 
Habits that domineer over a man's nature are imperious in 
their demands upon him. 

(9) Abusive (or insolent, insulting, offensive, opprobrious, 
rude, scurrilous^ language is always a mark of ill-breeding. 

An abusive author does not have to use either insolent or 
scurrilous words. 

That servant's insolent manner was more insulting thzn rude. 

Although the article is so offensive^ it will not give the author 
the opprobrious name he deserves. 

Such a scurrilous fellow has not the power of insulting you. 

(10) It is impossible for me to accede to (or acquiesce in, 
agree to, assent to, co7Jiply with, yield to) your desire. 

If you accede to my terms, I will comply with all the terms 
of the contract. 

Should you not acquiesce in the proposition, you will be 
compelled to yield every thing without conditions. 

Your partner agrees with me about the price provided you 
cheerfully assent to it. 



List of Synonyms. 

Abandon, desert, forsake, leave, quit, relinquish. 
Abase, degrade, disgrace, humble. 

Abbreviate, abridge, compress, condense, contract, curtail, 
epitomize, shorten. 



SYNONYMS. 139 

Abettor, accessory, accomplice, assistant, associate, coadjutor, 

colleague, helper, partner. 
Ability, aptitude, aptness, capability, capacity, endowment, 

faculty, gift, talent. 
Abode, domicile, dwelling, habitation, home, residence. 
Abolish, abrogate, annul, cancel, repeal, revoke. 
Absoluta^, arbitrary, despotic, domineering, imperious, lordly, 

overbearing, tyrannical. 
Abusive, insolent, insulting, offensive, opprobrious, rude, scur- 
rilous. 
Accede, acquiesce, agree, assent, comply, yield. 
Accomplish, achieve, complete, consummate, effect, execute, 

finish, fulfill, terminate. 
Account, description, explanation, explication, narration, re- 
cital, relation. 
Accurate^ correct, exact, precise, strict. 
Acerbity, asperity, harshness, pungency, tartness. 
Acquaifit, apprise, communicate, inform, notify. 
Acquire, attain, earn, gain, get, obtain, procure, win. 
Active^ agilcj alert, assiduous, brisk, industrious, lively, nim- 
ble, prompt, quick, sprightly. 
Acute, cutting, keen, penetrating, piercing, pointed, sharp, 

shrewd. 
Adage, aphorism, apothegm, maxim, proverb, saying. 
Address, behavior, carriage, conduct, demeanor, deportment. 
Adduce, advance, allege, assign, cite, quote. 
Adjacent, adjoining, contiguous. 

Admiration, amazement, astonishment, surprise, wonder. 
Admit, allow, concede, grant. 

Adorn, beautify, deck, decorate, embellish, ornament. 
Adroit, apt, clever, dextrous, expert, ready, skillful. 
Adulterate, contaminate, corrupt, defile, infect, pollute, taint, 

vitiate. 
Adverse, averse, contrary, hostile, inimical, opposite. 
Advertise, announce, declare, proclaim, promulgate, publish. 
Affability, complaisance, courteousness, courtesy, politeness, 

suavity, urbanity. 
Affirm, assert, asseverate, aver, declare. 



140 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Affliction, agony, anguish, distress, pain, suffering. 

Affray, altercation, brawl, broil, contention, fray, quarrel. 

Affright^ alarm, appal, dismay, frighten, shock, terrify. 

Afraid, fearful, timid, timorous. 

Age, century, epoch, era, generation, period, time. 

Agility, briskness, celerity, fleetness, nimbleness, quickness, 
rapidity, speed, swiftness. 

Agreeuient, bargain, compact, contract, covenant. 

Air, appearance, aspect, look, manner, mien, semblance. 

Allay, appease, assuage, calm, compose, pacify, propitiate, 
soothe, still, tranquilize. 

Alliance, coalition, confederacy, connection, league, union. 

Allure, decoy, entice, inveigle, seduce, tempt. 

Always, constantly, continually, ever, incessantly, perpetually, 
unceasingly, uninterruptedly, unremittingly. 

A^nend, better, correct, improve, reform. 

Ample, broad, capacious, extensive, large, spacious, wide. 

Amusemejit^ diversion, entertainment, pastime, play, recrea- 
tion, sport. 

Anger, indignation, ire, resentment, wrath. 

Aniinate, cheer, comfort, encourage, excite, enliven, exhilarate, 
impel, incite, inspire, instigate, provoke, stimulate, urge. 

Answer^ rejoinder, replication, reply, response. 

Antecedent, 2iXi\.^x\ox^ foregoing.former, preceding, previous, prior. 

Aittipathy, aversion, dislike, hatred, repugnance. 

Anxiety^ attention, care, concern, perplexity, solicitude. 

Apparel, array, attire, clothes, dress, garments. 

Appare7tt, clear, distinct, evident, manifest, obvious, plain. 

Applaud, approve, commend, extol, laud, praise. 

Ardent, burning, eager, fervent, fiery, hot, impetuous, passion- 
ate, vehement, violent, warm. 

Area, superficies, surface. 

Arrange, dispose, place, range, regulate. 

Articulate, say, speak, talk, utter. 

Artifice, cheat, deceit, deception, delusion, finesse, fraud, guile, 
imposition, imposture, stratagem, trick. 

Ask, beg, claim, demand, entreat, inquire, interrogate, ques- 
tion, request, solicit. 



SYNONYMS. 141 

Asperse, calumniate, defame, detract, scandalize, slander, 
vilify. 

AttetiHve, careful, cautious, circumspect, heedful, provident, 
solicitous. 

August, dignified, lofty, magisterial, majestic, pompous, stately. 

Awful, distressing, dreadful, fearful, frightful, horrible, horrid, 
shocking, terrible, terrific, tremendous. 

Barbarous, bestial, beastly, brutal, cruel, ferocious, inhuman, 
savage. 

Battle^ combat, conflict, contest, engagement. 

Bear, carry, support, sustain, undergo. 

Beat, conquer, defeat, overcome, overpower, overthrow, rout, 
subdue, vanquish. 

Beatitude, blessedness, bliss, felicity, happiness. 

Beco7ning, befitting, comely, fit, graceful, suitable. 

Behest, charge, command, injunction, mandate, order. 

Bend, contort, distort, incline, lean, turn. 

Benevolence, beneficence, bounty, generosity, goodness, hu- 
manity, liberality. 

Bent, bias, cast, disposition, inclination, prejudice, preposses- 
sion, temper, tendency, turn. 

Blame, cavil, censure, condemn, reprehend, reproach, reprove, 
upbraid. 

Blast, breeze, gale, gust, hurricane, storm, tempest. 

Blemish, blot, defect, failing, fault, flaw, foible, imperfection, 
speck, spot, stain, weakness. 

Blithe^ blithesome, gay, jocund, joyous, light-hearted, lively, 
merry, mirthful, sportive, sprightly, vivacious. 

Bold, brave, courageous, daring, fearless, gallant, heroic, in- 
trepid, undaunted, valiant, valorous. 

Border, boundary, brim, brink, edge, margin, rim, verge. 

Bound, circumscribe, confine, inclose, limit, restrict, terminate. 

Brittle, fragile, frail, frangible. 

Bulk, capacity, extent, greatness, largeness, magnitude, size. 

Business, calling, dealing, employment, occupation, profession, 
trade, vocation. 

Butchery, carnage, massacre, slaughter. 

Calamity, disaster, mischance, misfortune, mishap. 



142 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Callous, hard, insensible, obdurate, unfeeling. 

.Calm, composed, placid, quiet, serene, settled, still, tranquil, 
undisturbed, unruffled. 

Captivate, charm, enchant, fascinate. 

Capture, catch, grasp, gripe, seize, snatch, take. 

Careless, heedless, inattentive, negligent, remiss, thoughtless. 

Cause, incitement, inducement, motive, reason. 

Cede^ deliver, grant, surrender, yield. 

Celebrated, conspicuous, distinguished, eminent, famous, illus- 
trious, noted, prominent, renowned. 

Celestial, divine, god-like, heavenly, holy, sacred. 

Changeable, fickle, fluctuating, inconstant, mutable, uncertain, 
unstable, variable, wavering. 

Characterize, denominate, describe, designate, name, style. 

Chastisement, correction, discipline, punishment. 

Check, control, curb, govern, repress, restrain. 

Choke, stifle, smother, suffocate. 

Choose^ elect, pick, prefer, select. 

Circumspect, observant, wakeful, wary, watchful. 

Clandestijie, concealed, hidden, private, secret. 

Close, compact, dense, firm, solid. 

Coerce, repress, subdue, suppress. 

Cogent, forcible, potent, powerful, strong, vigorous. 

Comfortless, desolate, forlorn, miserable, wretched. 

Comic, droll, funny, humorous, laughable, ludicrous, mirthful, 
ridiculous, witty. 

Co7n7nerce, dealing, trade, traffic. 

Common, frequent, general, ordinary, usual. 

Conceal, disguise, hide, screen, secrete. 

Conformation, fashion, form, mold, shape. 

Consider, deliberate, ponder, reflect, regard, think. 

Contain, embrace, hold, include. 

Contajninate, corrupt, defile, pollute, taint, vitiate. 

Contemptible, despicable, low, mean, paltry, vile, worthless. 

Continue, persevere, persist, prosecute, pursue. 

Contrive, devise, fabricate, frame, invent. 

Copy, model, specimen, transcription. [sour, splenetic. 

Crabbed, cross, fretful, ill-tempered, morose, peevish, petulant, 



SYNONYMS. 143 

Custom^ fashion, habit, manner, mode, practice, usage, way. 

Damage, detriment, harm, hurt, injury, loss. 

Danger, hazard, peril, risk, venture. 

Dark, dim, dismal, dull, gloomy, obscure. 

Death, decease, demise, departure. 

Debilitate, enervate, enfeeble, weaken. 

Defeat, disappoint, foil, frustrate. 

Deride, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, sneer, taunt. 

Destiny, doom, fate, judgment, lot. 

Discern, discriminate, distinguish, perceive. 

Disclose^ discover, divulge, impart, reveal. 

Disease^ disorder, distemper, malady. 

Disgrace, dishonor, disrepute, ignominy, infamy, obloquy, op- 
probrium, scandal, shame. 

Disgust, dislike, dissatisfaction, distaste. 

Dismal, dull, gloomy, heavy, sluggish. 

Display, exhibit, parade, show. 

Distress, perplex, trouble. 

District, division, portion, quarter, region, section, tract. 

Domestic, drudge, menial, servant. 

Doubtful, dubious, hesitating, irresolute, uncertain, undeter- 
mined, wavering. 

Dregs, leavings, refuse, remains, sediment. 

Droop, fade, languish, pine, sink. 

Elevate, erect, exalt, lift, raise. 

Endless, eternal, everlasting, illimitable, infinite, interminable, 
perpetual, unlimited. 

Enormous, huge, immense, monstrous, prodigious, vast. 

Enrage, exasperate, incense, incite, inflame. 

Enthusiast, fanatic, visionary. 

Equitable, fair, honest, just, reasonable, right. 

Essential, necessary, needful, requisite. 

Esteem, prize, regard, respect, value. 

Examination, inquiry, investigation, scrutiny, search. 

Exceed, excel, out-do, surpass, transcend. 

Exterior, external, outward. 

Facetious, humorous, jocose, jocular, pleasant, witty. 

Failing, failure, foible, frailty, imperfection, weakness. 



144 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Faithless, perfidious, traitorous, treacherous, treasonable. 

Ferocious^ fierce, ravenous, savage. 

Fertile, fruitful, productive, prolific. 

Fleeting, temporary, transient, transitory. 

Folks, individuals, people, persons. 

Forecast, foresight, forethought, premeditation. 

Forerunner, harbinger, messenger, precursor. 

Fortify, invigorate, strengthen. 

Fortunate, lucky, prosperous, successful. 

Fresh, modern, new, novel, recent. 

Frivolous, petty, trifling, trivial, worthless. 

Furnish^ procure, provide, supply. 

Gape, gaze, stare. 

Gaudy, gay, glittering, showy, splendid. 

Genteel, polished, pohte, refined. 

Genuine, real, unadulterated, unalloyed. 

Glare, gleam, glimmer, glitter, radiate, shine, sparkle. 

Grave, important, momentous, serious, sober, solemn, thought- 
ful, weighty. 

Grudge, pique, spite. 

Healthy, salubrious, salutary, wholesome. 

Hilarity, jollity, joviality, merriment, mirth. 

Honesty, integrity, probity, rectitude, uprightness. 

Honor, revere, reverence, venerate. 

Idle, indolent, inert, lazy, slothful, sluggish. 

Ignorant, unenlightened, uninformed, uninstructed, unlearned, 
untaught. 

Image, likeness, picture, representation. 

Imminent, impending, threatening. 

Lnmodest, indecent, indelicate, unchaste. 

Impertinent, impudent, rude, saucy. 

Implacable, inexorable, relentless, unrelenting. 

Implant, inculcate, infuse, ingraft, instil. 

hicapable, incompetent, unfit. 

Inconsiderable, insignificant, unimportant. 

Incontrovertible, indisputable, indubitable, irrefragable, unde- 
niable, unquestionable. 

Incredulity , skepticism, unbelief. 



SYNONYMS. 145 

Incursion, inroad, invasion, irruption. 

Indication^ mark, note, sign, symptom, token. 

Indigence, need, penury, poverty, want. 

Ineffable, inexpressible, unspeakable, unutterable. 

Iniquitous, nefarious, unjust, wicked. 

Intercede, interpose, mediate. 

Introductory , preparatory, preliminary. 

Invert, overthrow, overturn, reverse, subvert. 

Irksome, tedious, troublesome, vexatious, wearisome. 

Kindred, kinsman, relation, relative. 

Lag, linger, loiter, tarry. 

Lean, meager, slender, slight, slim, thin. 

Leave, liberty, license, permission. [nance. 

Livelihood^ living, maintenance, subsistence, support, suste- 

Malevolent, malicious, malignant. 

Marine, maritime, naval, nautical. 

Marriage, matrimony, nuptials, wedding. 

Martial, military, soldier-like, warlike. 

Marvel, miracle, prodigy, wonder. 

Master, owner, possessor, proprietor. 

Memory, recollection, remembrance. 

Merchant, trader, tradesman. 

Miserable, unhappy, wretched. 

Monarch, potentate, prince, ruler, sovereign. 

Office, place, position, post, situation, station. 

Original, primary, primitive, pristine. 

Outweigh, overbalance, preponderate. 

Partake, participate, share. 

Passive, patient, quiescent, submissive, unresisting. 

Pemnan, scribe, writer. 

Precedence, preference, priority. 

Produce, product, production. 

Quake, quiver, shake, shudder, tremble. 

Ramble, roam, rove, stroll, wander. 

Rebound, recoil, reverberate. 

Recapitulate, recite, rehearse, repeat. 

Recede^ retire, retreat, withdraw. 

Recover, retrieve, restore, recruit, regain. 

E. E.— 13. 



£46 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

i?^^/, stagger, totter. 

Refresh^ renew, renovate, revive. 

Remainder, remnant, residue, rest. 

Repay, restore, return. 

Resentful, revengeful, vindictive. 

Retrospect, review, survey. 

Sap, subvert, undermine. 

Secular, temporal, worldly. 

Sudden, unanticipated, unexpected, unlocked for. 

Suffrage, voice, vote. 

(7) A Pleonasm is an allowable form of ver- 
bosity. It is a fullness of expression sometimes 
necessary in order to insure clearness. Its frequent 
use indicates a defective vocabulary, and hence 
poverty of thought. Some pleonastic expressions 
are so frequently used that even scholarly persons 
do not notice them ; some are so incorporated into 
the structure of words that they can not be avoided. 
Familiarity and necessity, therefore, justify their 
use. The following are a few illustrations : 

Admit of. Contiguous to. Cover up or over. Z>z.?annul. 
DowniiSS.. Explanatory of. Furtherfnore. Incident to. In- 
cline to. Latter end. '^oviadays. Of an agreeable charac- 
ter. Oftentimes. Read over. Render dac^. Self-sa-vne. Sub-' 
Ject-msitter. Unto. Wherewith^/. W\dov7-'wo?nan. 

(8) A Periphrase is a circumlocution. When 
correctly used, it is properly defined as expanding a 
concise thought in order to make the meaning obscure. 
It is very appropriate in burlesque and satire, and 
is sometimes necessary in the expression of a 
thought that, in itself, is vulgar. Its misuse is very 
common, especially by young writers who have not 



PARAPHRASE. I47 

the discretion to distinguish sound from sense. 
Its misuse makes it the basis of what is called 
''fine writing." The following are correct illustra- 
tions of the use of the periphrase: 

The wound in the abdomen was so serious that the viscera 
protruded ; and they were so badly injured that it was doubt- 
■ful whether the man would live. 

"Adolescence!" said this abortive specimen of humanity, 
'' art thou, with thy flexible rod, attenuated line, and tempting 
barb, endeavoring to entice from the rocky depths of this 
purling stream the scaly inhabitants thereof?" "No," said 
the boy, " I 'm a fishing." 

(9) A Paraphrase is the expansion of a concise 
thought in order to make the meaning clearer. Its 
difference from a periphrase is therefore very 
marked. The periphrase deals almost entirely with 
the words of a sentence ; the paraphrase, almost 
entirely with the thought. Every lecture, sermon, 
essay, is, strictly speaking, a paraphrase. This is 
a form of expression not always necessary, as the 
condensed thought may not admit an expansion 
without positive injury to it. Most aphorisms, 
however, allow of paraphrastic forms. The follow- 
ing illustration, from Thackeray's "Newcomes, " is 
upon the thought : Youth is the happiest time of life : 

There was once a time when the sun used to shine brighter 
than it appears to do in this latter half of the nineteenth cen- 
tury ; when the zest of life was certainly keener ; when tavern 
wines seemed to be delicious, and tavern dinners the perfec- 
tion of cookery ; when the perusal of novels was productive 
of immense delight, and the monthly advent of magazine day 
was hailed as an exciting holiday ; when to know Thompson, 



148 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

who had written a magazine article, was an honor and a privi- 
lege ; and to see Brown, the author of the last romance, in the 
flesh, and actually walking in the Park with his umbrella and 
Mrs. Brown, was an event remarkable, and to the end of life 
to be perfectly well remembered ; when the women of this 
world were a thousand times more beautiful than those of the 
present time. 



Suggestive Questions. 



1. Give the synonyms for harshness, infect, look, majestic ^ 
joyous, negligent, ordinary, portion, respect, shine. 

2. Which of the illustrations under Pleonasm are necessary ? 
Which pleonastic forms are superfluous ? 

3. Write periphrases upon the following subjects : The rain 
fell in torrents. Thy belly is thy god. 

4. Paraphrase : 'T is an ill wind that blows nobody any 
good. 

5. Is the following periphrastic or paraphrastic ? Why ? 

Behold the mansion reared by d^dal Jack ; 
See the malt stored in many a plethoric sack 
In the proud cirque of Ivan's bivouac. 
Mark how the rat's felonious fangs invade 
The golden stores in John's pavilion laid. 

II. Uses of Words. 

The technical grammatical forms of words in En- 
glish are so few that their misuse is more frequently 
due to carelessness than ignorance. Owing to vari- 
ous causes, principally to the rapidity of composi- 
tion necessary to supply the demands of the daily 
press, this carelessness is apparent even in the pro- 
ductions of the foremost writers of the day. As 
such writers largely determine correct usage, . their 



THE NOUN. 149 

negligence is likely to occasion a degradation of the 
language. The following rules are such as are still 
accepted by English scholars. 

(i) The Noun. 

Possessive Case. — (i) When a noun limits another 
noun, and as a result possession, origin, kindred, 
fitness, or time is implied, the limiting noun should 
be in the possessive. 

(2) When the limiting noun has another noun in 
apposition with it, or is followed by an adjective or 
adjective phrase, the noun in apposition, or the ad- 
jective, or the object of the preposition of the 
adjective phrase is put in the possessive. 

(3) When two or more successive nouns denote 
common possession, the last noun should be in the 
possessive ; but when common possession is not im- 
plied, each noun should be in the possessive. 

(4) The object of the preposition of takes the 
sign of the possessive, thus forming a double pos- 
sessive when one or more of a number of things 
belonging to the possessor are mentioned. 

(5) When a participle is used as a noun, the noun 
before it should be in the possessive. 

(6) The present participle, with a possessive 
before it, sometimes admits of after it, sometimes 
not. 

(7) When the present participle, used as a noun, 
has an article before it, it should have of, with its 
object, after it. When one is omitted, both should 
be. 



150 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

(8) The possessive, and of, with its object, are 
sometimes equivalent, sometimes not. 

(9) The s after the apostrophe is omitted when 
too many hissing sounds come together ; also, when 
a plural noun ends in s. 

(10) Harshness, ambiguity, and a succession of 
possessives should be avoided. 

Illustrations of the Above Rules. 

(i) Henry's book was lost. 

Janes mother h.2iS been very ill. 

That bo/s brother was convicted of crime. 

Please give me a dollar's worth of sugar. 

That inan's actions are very suspicious. 

A month' s time is not sufficient. 

(2) Elizabeth, the queen' s sister, was imprisoned for a short 
time. 

Philip the Good's son became a daring general. 
That Queen of Frajice's life was a sad one. 

(3) Religion and morality's objects are identical. 

The general's and secretary's orders were entirely different. 

(4) Y^QS^ paintings of Smith's are very beautiful. 

(5) Your boy s fighting in the street was inexcusable. 

(6) Yiis friend's talking of it recalled the whole incident. 

(7) The making of such a speech indicated elaborate 
preparation. 

Making such a speech indicated elaborate preparation. 

(8) Ki7ig Henry's succession to the throne was unquestioned. 
The succession of King Henry to the throne was unques- 
tioned. ^ 

The ofiice of constable is not necessarily the constable's office. 

(9) For conscience" sake do not desert your friend in need. 
The ladies' parlor at the depot excludes gentlemen. 

(10) The sheriff of the county is a better expression than The 
county's sheriff. 



ADJECTIVES. 151 

Captain Jones was very uncomfortable concerning the Ge7i- 
eraVs ' appearance ; not, necessarily, the appearance of the 
General. 

You are of kin to my uncle's wife is better than You are of 
kin to the wife of my micle. 

She is the sister of my brother's friend, is better than She is 
the sister of the friend of my brother. 

(2) The Adjective. 

Articles. — (i) A or an is used before singular 
nouns when they are used indefinitely. A placed 
before few and great many is used before plural 
nouns. 

(2) The is placed before singular and plural nouns 
to point out objects definitely. 

(3) A has sometimes the meaning of every or 
each. 

(4) The Article is omitted before: 

1. A noun whose meaning is general, or that stands for a 
whole species. 

2. The names of most of the arts and sciences. 

3. Words used merely as titles. 

4. The latter of two nouns, after a comparative, when the 
two nouns refer to the same person or thing. 

(5) When the same article applies to each of a 
succession of adjectives or nouns, it may be placed 
before the first adjective or noun, instead of being 
repeated. 

(6) When the same article does not apply to 
each of a succession of adjectives or nouns, each 
adjective or noun should have its own article. 



152 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

(7) In a succession of nouns or adjectives, the 
adjective or noun that does not admit an article is 
placed first. 

Compaiison. — (i) The Comparative Degree, except 
of Defectives, requires than after it. 

(2) When two objects are compared, the com- 
parative is used. 

(3) In the use of the comparative, if the latter 
term of comparison tends to include the former, use 
other before the latter term whether that term is ex- 
pressed or understood. 

(4) When more than two objects are compared, 
the superlative is used. 

(5) In the use of the superlative, if the latter 
term of comparison tends to exclude the former, 
omit all the quahfiers of the latter term that will do 
this. 

(6) Double comparatives and superlatives are 
obsolete. 

(7) Adjectives of no comparison should not be 
compared. 

In the Predicate. — (i) In the predicate, after an 
intransitive verb, adjectives should be used when 
they evidently belong to the subject, and not to the 
verb. 

Illustrations of the Above Rules. 

Articles. — (i) Your house is a very comfortable one. 

An honest man is the noblest work of God. 

I have only a few copies of the book. 

Such a performer will not make a great many mistakes. 

(2) The owl is a night bird. 

(3) Coal is now fifteen cents a bushel. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 153 

This medicine is worth fifty cents an ounce. 

(4) Love was given to man as a blessing, not a curse. 
Literature is a delightful study. 

General Q^ox^Q H. Thomas was a successful commander. 
Your son will make a better blacksmith than scholar. 

(5) Such a scholar ought to lead a quiet, co7nfortable, and 
happy life. 

Goldsmith was a poet, dramatist, ?tovelist, and an essayist. 

(6) A merchant is not always an able and a successful man. 
A politician should be an oxdlor as well as a writer. 

(7) Literature and the fine arts are associated together. 
Comparison. — (i) Henry Williams is a better student than 

his brother. 

(2) This work is more interesting tha7i the other. 

(3) Edwin Booth is a better actor than any other in the pro- 
fession. 

(4) The oldest of \S\^ four brothers is a physician. 

(5) General Grant was the most remarkable of recent itiili- 
tary commanders. 

(6) Yours is the better reason ; not more better reason. 
This was the wikifidest cut of all ; not the most tin kindest cvX. 

(7) A machine like this is a perfect specimen of workman- 
ship. 

In the Predicate. — (i) That rose smells very sweet. 

(3) TJie Pronoun, 

PERSONALS. . 

Person. — (i) A personal pronoun must agree in 
person with its antecedent, expressed or understood. 

Number. — (i) A personal pronoun must agree in 
number with its antecedent, expressed or under- 
stood. 

(2) When a personal refers to two or more singu- 
lar antecedents taken together, provided they do not 
refer to the same person or thing, it must be plural. 



154 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

(3) When a personal refers to two or more singu- 
lar antecedents taken separately, it must be singular. 
Antecedents are separated by but, eachy every, eithery 
or, neither, nor, and also, and not, and only, and too, 
as well as, if not. 

(4) When a personal refers to two or more ante- 
cedents of different numbers taken separately, it 
agrees with the plural antecedent, which should be 
placed nearest to it. 

(5) When a collective noun conveys the idea of 
unity, the pronoun should be singular. 

Gender. — (i) A personal pronoun must agree in. 
gender with its antecedent, expressed or understood. 

(2) When no gender is expressed, the masculine 
is generally understood, except when expressing the 
infancy of a person or an animal. 

Case. — (i) A personal pronoun used as the sub- 
ject ; in the predicate after an intransitive verb ; in 
apposition with the subject or the noun in the pred- 
icate after an intransitive verb ; or independently ; 
should be in the noriiinative. 

(2) When the personal denotes possession, and 
when before the participle used as a noun, it must 
be in the possessive. 

(3) A personal u^ed as the object of a transitive 
verb or of a preposition, or used in apposition with 
the object of a verb or preposition, should be in 
the objective. 

Position. — The preference of position of the per- 
sonal pronouns is : second person, third person, first 
person. In acknowledging a fault, the first person 
may be placed first. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. I55 



RELATIVES. 

Case. — The rules for the cases of relative pro- 
nouns are the same as for personals. 

Position. — (i) The relative should stand immedi- 
ately after its antecedent, if possible. 

Relation,— {i) Who now relates to persons; what, 
to things; which, to animals and things; and that, 
to persons, animals, and things. 

(2) When used interrogatively, what and which 
have the same relations as that. 

Special Uses. — That is generally used after: 

(i) Who. 

(2) An adjective in the superlative degree. 

(3) All, any, each^ every, no, same, some, very. 

(4) Collective nouns, unless the gender is expressed. 

(5) Antecedents of both a person and a thing. 

(6) Antecedents relating to the same person or thing. 

(7) An antecedent introduced by it. 

(8) The word child and words similar in meaning. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Demo7tstratives. — (i) This and that agree with 
their nouns in number. 

(2) In antithesis, that refers to the first person or 
thing mentioned, or to things past ; this, to the last 
person or thing mentioned, or to things present. 

(3) Former and latter, or one and other, may be 
used instead of this and that. 

(4) This here and that there are vulgarisms. 



156 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. * 

Distributives. — (i) Either and neither refer to one 
of two things or groups of things. For more than 
two, use the indefinites all, any, or none. 

Indefinites. — (i) Other, without an article before 
it, usually requires than after it. 

(2) Else sometimes requires than after it. 

(3) Such generally requires as after it. 
Miscellaneous. — (i) Pronouns should not be used 

ambiguously. 

(2) Pronouns should not be mixed in the same 
sentence. 

(3) The personal, them, should not be used for the 
demonstrative, those. 

(4) What should not be used, as a conjunction, 
for that. 

(5) A noun and its pronoun should not be nomi- 
native to the same verb. 

(6) It is used : 

(i) To introduce a sentence. 

(2) To represent a plural noun. 

(3) To represent a noun of the first, second, or third person. 

(4) To represent a masculine or feminine noun. 

(5) To express a general condition or state. 

(6) Indefinitely. 

(7) Impersonally. 

(7) Sometimes we, our, us are used with a singular 
antecedent. 

Illustrations of Above Rules. 

Personals. 

Person. — (i) Oh, liberty! how many crimes have been 
committed in thy name! 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 157 

Number. — (i) The ^-enera/ sent an order by Ms aid-de-camp. 

(2) Both feac/ter a.nd pupzV then went to M^/r homes. 
Your stx-3Si<ge friend and benefactor then told his story. 

(3) Whether 2Js> friend or foe, he is not ungenerous. 

(4) The captain or his ine7i disobeyed their orders. 

(5) That committee was unanimous in its action. 
Gender. — (i) ^o father was more beloved by his son. 
A faithful wife will be faithful to her household. 

Do your work cheerfully, and it will be pleasant. 
(2) If any one is guilty, let hi7n acknowledge it. 
Should the colt be stubborn, make it obey you. 
Case. — (i) He who wastes his time is foolish. 
Who told you it was she? 

Henry Irving, he of whom you spoke, is a great actor. 
(In the above sentence it is better to omit the pronoun.) 
He I Why, he could not possibly do the work. 
She having spoken, he immediately relented. 

(2) Jones has sold his house to i7iy neighbor Brown. 

Your being sick will prevent your keeping the appointment. 

(3) You will be sure to lose them before to-morrow. 
Between you and vie, our friend has blundered. 

Do you see that man, him with the large felt hat ? (In the 
above sentence, it is better to omit the pronoun.) 

Please speak to that woman, — her at the door. (In the 
above sentence it is better to omit the pronoun.) 

Position. — (i) You, they, and we are invited to the wedding. 

Relatives. 

Case. — (i) Who^xote the letter can not now be determined. 
I can not tell who is who. 

(2) Whose book was lost ? 

(3) My uncle, whom you saw yesterday, has gone to Paris. 
To whom did you address the letter ? 

Position. — The gejteral who carefully watches his outposts 
will never be surprised. 

Relation. — (i) That is a man who is always busy. 
What his name was I never learned. 



158 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

He could not tell which horse was his. 

You did not say which book was yours. 

Frank is not a boy that will study much. 

A horse that is well trained is very valuable. 

No book that is immoral should be published. 

(2) Which'xs the jnerchant here, and which the /ew f 

What man is here who dares disobey ? 

Special Uses. — (i) Who is he that claims the honor? 

(2) You are the best pupil that I have. 

(3) Such a person will soon tell all that he knows. 
Any man that saw him would have trusted him. 
Each animal that was trained had a good memory. 
He knew every person that he met. 

Frank knew 710 one that could assist him. 
You are the same man that was here yesterday. 
The captain saw some that were trying to desert. 
It occurred on the very day that you arrived. 

(4) Cromwell commanded an ariny that was never defeated. 

(5) Was it the general, his horse, or his baggage that was 
taken ? 

(6) It was either as a speculator or gambler that he made 
his money. 

(7) // was / that made the mistake. 

(8) This is the infant that escaped from the wreck. 

Adjectives, • 

Demonstratives. — (i) This boy is very indolent. 
These books are much worn. 
That kind of cloth does not wear well. 
Those shoes are not very well made. 

(2) Teachers belong to two classes, — the originators and 
imitators: those are successful; these, failures. 

(3) Spiders and insects proper differ in the number of their 
legs : the former have eight ; the latter only six. 

There are two kinds of warfare, — offensive and defensive : 
young men have succeeded best in the one ; old men in the 
other. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 1 59 

(4) This place is unsuitable for the experiment, is better 
English than This place here is unsuitable for the experi- 
ment. 

Distributives. — (i) Either of the two men can do the work 
well. 

Neither of the two persons knows who I am. 

All of the houses in the village were burned. 

Any of the crowd might have known better. 

None of the company were wounded. 

(2) Each of the persons was held responsible. 

Every family is likely to have misfortunes. 

Either of the boys knows the way well. 

Neither of the men has made a mistake. 

Indefinites. — (i) No <?//^<?r person than he can perform the 
task. 

(2) Nothing else than the truth shall be told. 

(3) She is such a person as inspires confidence. 
Miscellaneous. — (i) John told his father, ''My prospects 

are good." 

(2) You blockhead ! remember your past mistakes ! 

A person who has lived well, and who has become accus- 
tomed to good living, will not cheerfully accept poverty. 

(3) You need not have told those persons any thing about it. 

(4) He has no doubt but that the boy will succeed. 

(5) Captain John Smith saved the Virginia colony, is correct 
English ; but. Captain John Smith, he saved the Virginia 
colony, is not correct. 

(6) // is to be feared that the disease will become epi- 
demic. 

// was the rebels who made the first attack. 
Whether it was you, he, or / is not known to her. 
It was George who wrote the articles, but his sister who sug- 
gested them. 

How is it with you, lady ? 

Come and trip it as you go. 

// is very difficult for me to do exactly what is right. 

(7) We, as a writer, feel as if our labor should be protected 
by law. 



l6o ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

(4) The Verb. 

Person. — (i) The verb agrees with its subject in 
person. 

(2) When singular subjects, taken separately, are 
of different persons, the singular verb agrees with 
the person next to it. It is better to give each 
subject its own verb. 

Number, — (i) The verb agrees with its subject in 
number. 

(2) Two or more singular subjects, taken together, 
require a plural verb, except when they denote the 
same person or thing. 

(3) Two or more singular subjects, taken sepa- 
rately, require a singular verb. Subjects are taken 
separately when connected by but, each, every, either, 
neither, nor, or, and also, and not, and too, as well as, 
if not. 

(4) When two or more subjects, taken separately, 
are of different numbers, the plural verb should be 
placed next to the plural subject. 

Tense. — (i) Present. The present indicative de- 
notes indefinite present time, and is used to express 
a present act or state, a present habit or custom, an 
assertion that is always true, a characteristic of a 
person, and, figuratively, a past or future trans- 
action. 

(2) The present is often used after as soon as, 
before, till or until, when, whatever, whoever, to ex- 
press the relative time of a future action. 

(3) When should is used instead of ought, it may 
be followed by the present. 



THE VERB. l6l 

(4) The present and past of mayy can, shall, will, 
should not be used in the same connection. 

(5) The present indicative should not be used for 
the present perfect. 

(6) The time of the present infinitive is the same 
as that of the leading verb. 

Past. — (i) The past indicative denotes indefinite 
past time, and should not be used for the present, 
present perfect, past perfect, or past participle. 

Future. — (i) The future indicative denotes indefi- 
nite future time, and should not be used for the 
future perfect. 

Present Perfect. — (i) The present perfect indica- 
tive denotes completed present time, and should 
not be used for the present or past. 

(2) The time of the present perfect infinitive is 
antecedent to that of the leading verb. 

Mood. — (i) The past indicative should not be 
used for the past potential. 

Subjunctive. — (i) The subjunctive should be used 
when uncertainty and futurity are expressed. 

(2) Lest and that, joined to a command, are fol- 
lowed by the subjunctive. . 

(3) Ifi with but following, when futurity is im- 
plied, requires the subjunctive. 

(4) Were (subjunctive form) is used to express a 
wish or desire, or mere supposition. 

Infinitive. — (i) The sign of the present infinitive 
is omitted after the verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, 
make, need, see in the active voice ; after let, in the 
passive ; and sometimes after behold, have, help, 
know, obsefve, please, zvatcJi. 

E. E.— 14. 



1 62 ELEMENTS OF ENSLISH. 

(2) An adverb should not be placed between the 
sign of the infinitive and the verb, nor should for 
precede the sign. 

(3) The present infinitive of be takes an objective 
after it. 

Participles. — (i) The past participle should not be 
used for the past indicative. 

Miscellaneous. — (i) It is better to preserve the 
same form of the verb throughout the sentence. 

(2) The object of the active verb should be made 
the subject of the passive. 

(3) What a person is compelled to do, what duty 
requires, or what is merely unavoidable, is often 
better expressed by shall or should than by will or 
would. 

(4) Transitive verbs should not be made intransi- 
tive by adding a useless preposition. 

(5) Do not use affect for effect^ calcidate for intend, 
carry for take, expect for suspect, empty for flow, go 
for come, intend, or happejt, grow for cidtivate, lay for 
lie, lear?t for teach, like for love, overflown for over- 
flowed, raise for rise or rear, set for sit, suit for beneflt. 

Illustrations of Above Rules. 

Person. — (i) He knows, said I, that he made a mistake. 

(2) Tkou or ke is surely mistaken. A better form is : Thou 
art or he is surely mistaken. 

Number. — (i) The petidance of such men betrays their 
littleness. 

(2) Honesty and industry are noble virtues. 
That noted teacher and scholar was then poor. 

(3) No man or woman is always thoughtful of others. 



THE VERB. 163 

No man but the chairman was aware of the mistake. 
Each boy and girl knows when the rule is violated. 
Every thought and action tends to that one object. 
Either the father or the son is guilty. 
Neither book ?tor message was received. 
William, and also John, has done the work well. 
The principal, and not the assistant, has made the blunder. 
The president, and his secretary, too, is very pleasant. 
Your uncle, as well as his friend, was accommodated. 
The aid-de-camp, if not the general, has given a wrong order. 
(4) Neither the colonel nor his captains have displayed 
much energy. 

Tense. — (i) Your friend writes and talks well. 

Henry goes to school regularly. 

John Mandeville proved that the world is round. 

George Washington is called the father of his country. 

The enemy marches rapidly during the night. 

The old guard never surrenders : it dies I 

(2) You may be excused as soon as you recite. 
This should be completed before the other is begun. 
You should wait until he cojnes. 

Whe7i she starts for home, she will take you with her. 
It is best to be quiet about the matter, whatever happens. 
Whoever is guilty will certainly be punished. 

(3) You should go if you are well enough. 

(4) It may be that your eyes are permanently injured. 
It might be that you were mistaken, 

I shall go if you will look after the business. 

(5) My friends have been with me a week. 

(6) He says he knows your friend to be 3. good man. 
Past. — (i) Your uncle spoke to him kindly. 

Said I, "You are surely mistaken," 
That boy has been adi7ionished many times. 
The officer had received his orders before that assault. 
A kindly spoken word never comes amiss. 
Future. — (i) We shall be pleased to hear from you fre- 
quently. 
You shall observe the rule or leave the school. 



164 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

I will ask your friend to join us. 

When will the happy hour arrive ? 

Present Perfect. — (i) Frank has learned much from ex- 
perience. 

Your error has been conscientiously corrected. 

He was said to have been an able lawyer many years before. 

Mood — Subjmictive. — ( i ) If he be wise he will follow your 
advice. 

If your father were here he would give you permission. 

(2) Take care lest he commit a serious error ! 

Take heed that you be not overconfident of success. 

If it be but a moment, it will be sufficient. 

If it were wrong, it would not result differently. 

Would I were with thee every day and hour. 

Infinitive. — (i) James bade Henry come into the house. 

The dog was bidden to go home. 

I dared him show his authority. 

James said he was dared to do it. 

The child y^// a gentle hand rest upon his head. 

It was felt to be a great calamity. 

We have heard father speak of you. 

Jones was heard to accuse his neighbor. 

He should let the man do the work himself. 

Each person should be let work out his own salvation. 

You should make it see^n more natural. 

It should be made to resemble the copy. 

He needs not feel uneasy about the matter. 

The captain was needed in order to explain the enterprise. 

Detectives saw him enter the house. 

A burglar was seen to open the shutter. 

I beheld the audience act with great enthusiasm. 

You can have Thomas do the work for you. 

His uncle helped him pay the debt. 

I have known him perform wonderful things. 

The general observed the enemy advance rapidly. 

When was it you perceived him watch you ? 

Will you please ask your brother to go with us ? 

Is it possible the thief watched him leave the house ? 



THE VERB. 165 

(2) He was known to go frequently to the house. 

What went ye out to see ? A reed shaken by the wind ? 

(3) Had I supposed it to be them, I should have felt differ- 
ently, [sick. 

Participles. — (i) You should have see7i him when first taken 
You are capable of producing a well writteti paper. 
Miscellaneous. — (i) Thinking well and doing well are 
different things. 

(2) The comma7id of the army was given to General Grant 
by the President, is better than, General Grant was given the 
command of the army by the President. 

(3) The boy shall go to school even if it will be disagreeable 
to him. [out. 

You shall follow this plan because it can be easily carried 
Shall wo. attempt to climb the mountain this morning? 
We should not neglect any duty if we would be successful. 

(4) This affair does not admit an explanation. 

(5) She may affect to do what she can not do with effect. 
If you inte7id to undertake it, you should calculate your 

chances of success. 

Should you take the package, carry it upon your arm. 

I expect to find him at home, although he does not suspect 
my coming. 

The Ohio 'Kw&x flows into the Mississippi; it would take a 
long time to empty the Ohio. 

The boy did not intend to do wrong : I therefore hope that, 
when you coine to think of it, you will see that the mistake 
happened accidentally. 

Whatever you cultivate well will grow well. 

Lay the child down so that it will lie comfortably. 

He teaches so well that his pupils learn rapidly. 

I like fruit, but I love my relatives. 

Overflowed lands are made valuable by drainage. 

Please raise the desk a little before I rise to speak. 

That boy was reared with the utmost care. 

If you set your chair here, I will sit by you. 

That climate may benefit your health, but it will not suit 
your inclinations. 



1 66 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

(5) The Adverb. 

Position. — (i) The adverb is generally placed 
before the adjective, adverb, or participle that it 
modifies. 

(2) The adverb is generally placed after the verb 
in the present and past indicative and subjunctive. 

(3) When one auxiliary is used, the adverb gen- 
erally follows it. 

(4) When two or three auxiliaries are used, the 
adverb may follow the first, second, or third auxil- 
iary ; it most frequently follows the second. 

(5) As 07ily is both an adjective and an adverb, it 
should be placed next to the word it modifies. 
When an adjective, it belongs before the noun or 
pronoun ; when an adverb, before an adjective, par- 
ticiple, or adverb, and before or after the verb. 

(6) Always, never, often, sometimeSy generally pre- 
cede the verb. 

Miscellaneous. — (i) When the qualifying word in 
the predicate after an intransitive verb evidently 
qualifies the verb, it should be an adverb. 

(2) Two negatives are obsolete unless used in 
affirmation. 

(3) From, before hence, thence, whence is now 
obsolete. 

(4) Where should not be used for in which. 

(5) How, as how, because that, how that, should 
not be used for that as a conjunction. 

(6) How should not be used for lest or that not. 

(7) No should not be used for not. 



THE ADVERB. 1 6/ 



Illustrations of Preceding Rules. 

Position. — (i) Your friend is remarkably graceful. 
His brother has a singularly active mind. 
Henry Irving played his part remarkably well. 
My uncle had an exceedingly obliging disposition. 
The river has become a dangerously swollen stream. 

(2) He is a man that dresses well and speaks elegantly . 
If he speak even angrily, I shall not blame him. 

The orator spoke fearlessly to the excited mob. 

(3) Your teacher has seldom reproved you. 

(4) There is no one who has not been frequently mistaken. 
Such a person should have been often told of his rudeness of 

manners. 

(5) The principal is not the 07ily male teacher in the 
school. 

This author wrote only in the morning. 

Only watch the transformation, and you will be surprised. 

(6) A good friend always knows when to offer help. 
She never told her love. 

Thomas often atteinpted to evade the rules. 
I sometimes saw the old musician at his home. 
Miscellaneous. — (i) The train moved safely^ and we arrived 
safe at home. 

(2) No one ever supposed the event would happen. 

(3) Your friend went hence a few minutes ago. 
The merchant went thence to New York. 

It is not known whence he came. 

(4) That was the account in which the report was contra- 
dicted. 

(5) No one knew that a blunder had been committed. • 
Because he told you is no reason for divulging the secret. 

(6) Take care lest your habits ruin you. 

Remember that not every one who claims friendship is a 
friend. 

(7) Misfortunes come whether we are prepared for them or 
not. 



1 68 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



(6) The Prepositio7i. 

Case. — (i) Prepositions are always followed by 
the objective case, except when a limiting noun is 
followed by an adjective phrase, and when of and 
its object form a double possessive. 

Omissions. — (i) The preposition is often omitted 
after the following verbs: 

Allow, ask, answer, bear, beg, bequeath, bode, bring, build, 
buy, call, cost, cut, debar^ deny, do, eiigrave, envy, furnish, get, 
give, grant, hand, kill, leave, lose, lend, make, mean, occasion, 
offer, owe, paint, pay, play, plucky procure, promise, raise, read, 
reach, refuse, render, restore, run, save, secure, sell, sejid, show, 
spare, take, teach^ tell, throw, vouchsafe, wish^ work, write, 
yield. 

(2) For, in, on, are sometimes omitted before 
nouns denoting time. 

(3) For, to, unto, are sometimes omitted after like, 
unlike, near, nigh, opposite, worth. 

Position. — Prepositions should be placed before 
their objectives, and as near the words to which 
they relate as possible. 

Special Uses. — (i) At refers to what is indefinitely 
in or about. It is also used before the names of 
houses and towns ; before the number of a resi- 
dence; and after the verb am or be. 

(2) Between and betwixt show the relation of two 
objects ; among and amongst, of more than two. 

(3) In refers to what is inside only. It is also 
used before the names of countries and large cities. 

(4) Into means from outside to inside. 



THE PREPOSITION. 



169 



Uses after Certain Words, 



Only such words are given, in the use of which the wrong preposition 
may be selected. 

Nouns. 



Abhorrence of. 
Capacity /i^r. 
Difficulty z>z. 
Exception to. 
Fondness y27r. 



Incentive to. 
Inroad into. 
Martyr for. 
Need of. 
Occasion for. 



Prejudice against. 
Pursuance of 
Relation to. 
Taste of, for. 
Sympathy /c'r, with. 



Adjectives. 



Conversant 



Adequate to. 
Averse to. 
Congenial to, with. 
Consonant with. 

f with men. 

I in things. 

Derogatory to. 
Different fro?n. 
Eager in, for, after. 
■p . I At, bef. verbal noun. 
^P^^ I in, bef. other nouns. 

Yx^^from. 
Glad of 



Inaccessible to. 
Indulgent to. 
Mistrustful of. 
Neglectful of. 
Offensive to. 
Pertinent to. 
Pleasant to. 
Preferable to. 
Prejudicial to. 
Productive of 
Profitable to. 
Replete with. 
Similar to. 
Worthy of. 



Verbs. 



Accord with. 
Accuse of. 
Adapt to. 

{with, a person 
in, a measure. 
to, an effect. 
Arrive at. 
Aspire to. 

Attended I ^-^'Vf'^^^"^ 
I with,consei 

Brag of 
C\\ J/^^' ^y substitution. 

^ ( 2«/(7, /^, by alteration. 
E. E.— 15. 



consequences. 



P f with, for value. 

P 1 to, for illustration. 

Comply with. 

^ ( with, a person. 

Concur \ ■ ' ^ 

[ in, a measure. 

Confide in. 

of materials. 

in, characteristics. 
Correspond with. 
Corresponds to. 
Defend against others. 
Defend others ^<7;«. 
Destined to. 



Consist 



I/O 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Introduce 



Die I ^-^ disease. 

I by, agent or instrument. 
Ti'i^QX from. 
Discourage yr^;;2. 
Dissent from. 
Disgusted at, with. 
Enamored of with. 
Indulge in. 

f to, another. 
I into, a place. 

Intrude I ^-^f^' ^ P^^f ^- 

[ 2;z/6', an mclosure. 

{for^ something. 
at, a person or thing. 
after, a trust. 
Meddle with. 
Mingle with. 
Object to, against. 
Omitted from. 
Overwhelmed with^ by. 
Penetrate i7ito. 
Pleased with. 
Prejudice against. 



Preserve from. 

^ with, on, upon by 
Prevail J persuasion. 

over, against, oppo- 
sition. 

Profit by. 

( to, another. 
Reconcile \ with, what seems 
( wrong. 

Relieve offrojjt. 
Rely on, upoji. 

Reduce I ^^^^^^' subjection. 

I to, another form. 
Rise above. 
Strip of. 
Swerve. fro7n. 
Sympathize with. 

Unite [^^'^^>^^- 



with, to combine. 
ifi, a person. 
with, authority. 
Weary of. 



Vest 



{ 



Illustrations of Above Rules. 



Case. — (i) I can not tell to whom you refer. 
He spoke neither to him nor to me. 

Omissions. — (i) You should not ask him such questions or 
allow him to ask them. 

Bear him my compliments and beg him to excuse me. 

The professor bequeathed h.\s pupil mdmy of his books. 

This conduct bodes the state no good. 

Will you please brifig me that paper ? 

You can build yourself a handsome house with that money. 

You can buy hiiJi a suit of clothes in the city. 

Sickness in the family called him home. 

My books have cost me considerable money. 

Be sure and cut me a good pole. 

You shall not be debarred the use of the library. 

He denied \)\s friend even that small favor. 

It i}iay do him a great injury. 



THE PREPOSITION. I7I 

My friend engraved him a beautiful monogram. 

They envied him even a small share of the estate. 

The superintendent ^oxiSA furnish the tnan the materials. 

Your partner can get himself a new desk. 

Give 7ne that book, if you please ! 

Grant him this privilege, and he will appreciate it. 

Please hand me that goblet of water. 

Should you kill 7ne any game I will eat it with pleasure. 

His uncle left hi?n all his personal property. 

Extravagance will soon lose him his estate. 

If you leiid him that money he will squander it. 

My pupils made me a handsome present. 

The rascal may mean him no harm, but I doubt it. 

Your visit will not occasion me any inconvenience. 

That merchant has offered you his lowest terms. 

I do not remember that you owe me any money. 

No artist could refuse to paint her another picture. 

If ^OMpay me the principal I will say nothing about interest. 

Will you please j2^/<2K me that overture again ? 

Mary plucked the boy a beautiful flower. 

He soon procured the man another situation. 

You need not promise the man any thing. 

The contractor raised the wages of his men one dollar 2, day. 

If you will reach 7ne that knife I will sharpen it. 

My wife read me the entire volume. 

The sheriff refused him time to get his baggage. 

Your clerk has reiidered you an accurate account of it. 

Restore me my property or I shall take it by force ! 

My son is now large enough to run errands for me. 

Have you saved the workman all the pieces ? 

It is to be hoped you will secure the boy a good situation. 

Henry would not sell him the land at any price. 

You should send the writer an answer at once. 

It is easy to show your friejid the contents. 

Spare your boy the rod and it may ruin him. 

The wounded man was at once taken ?iome. 

You must teach yourself many a lesson. 

Be sure and tell me all the news. 



172 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Throw the worhna}! that piece of lumber ! 

I hope you will vouchsafe me an answer immediately. 

His friends wish him a prosperous future. 

Do not work him that example until he has first tried it. 

William will write him a letter immediately. 

The little army did not yield its enemy a single point. 

(2) It has surely been ?iyear since I saw you. 

A great improvement will be made two days from now. 
The flood will reach its height to-morrow. 

(3) The manager would like you to try it. 
It was unlike my brother to act so hastily. 
You were near hijn at the time it occurred. 

It was 7iigh the place where the accident happened. 
My uncle now lives opposite me. 

Strawberries are now worth twenty-five cents a quart. 
Position. — (i) Such a man can never be 2^. friend to me. 
Special Uses. — (i) My partner is always at the office in 
time. 

I now spend most of my time at home. 

You will find me at the Grand Hotel. 

While at the village I visited the old school-house. 

John Smith now lives at 375 Thompson Street. 

I have been at a great inconvenience. 

(2) Between Henry and you there should be no trouble. 
Among all my relatives I love William Brown best. 

(3) You may find your lost satchel in the road. 
The author has been in England five years. 
My only cousin lives in New York city. 

Your friend has evidently been in France a long time. 

(4) Please walk into the yard and look at the shrubbery. 
After Certain Words. — Nouns. 

I have a great abhorrence of his conduct. 

You have an excellent capacity for work. 

My difficulty in learning this language has disappeared. 

There is really no exception to this rule. 

This pupil has no fondness for study. 

It is hoped that this will be an incentive to you. 

The regiment made an inroad into the valley. 



THE PREPOSITION. 1/3 

Sir Thomas More was a martyr for principle. 
The need of help is not always realized. 
He had no occasion for any uneasiness. 
Such a party has a decided prejudice against reform. 
In ^z/rjz/^a:/?^^ <?/" adjournment, the meeting assembled. 
In relation to this question, I have nothing to say. 
So complete a taste of art should impart a taste for all that is 
beautiful. 

Your friend expressed great syjnpathy for \he. sufferer. 
I am not in sympathy with any such enterprise. 

Adjectives. 

His ability is not adequate to the occasion. 

You should not be averse to honest work. 

Burns was very congenial to those who knew him. 

Addison was congenial with only a few friends. 

This is not at all consonant with my wishes. 

He was conversant with the author and in his works. 

Your conduct has been derogatory to your dignity. 

My impression of the thought is different from yours. 

A politician is very eager in working for himself. 

Actors are generally eagexfor applause. 

Barnum is always eager after every thing new. 

I am not expert at guessing puzzles. 

A good mechanic should be expert in his trade. 

The road is now free from obstructions. 

Jones seemed ^/^^ of his friend's excuse. 

That cliff is inaccessible to all tourists. 

It is unwise to be overindulgent to children. 

Why should you be mistrustful of me ? 

I am not neglectful of so important a duty. 

This odor is very offensive to me. 

Your thought is not pertinent to the discussion. 

A cool day \s pleasant to the pedestrian. 

His choice is preferable to yours. 

Such a habit is prejudicial to good morals. 

That law will be productive of much good. 



1/4 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Perhaps the business will be profitable to you. 
The lecture was replete with illustrations. 
Your results are similar to mine. 
No man is worthy of such absolute confidence. 



Verbs. 

My observation accords exactly with yours. 
It is not rational to accuse him of ignorance. 
Mahogany is well adapted to the purpose. 
I am not compelled to agree with him. 
We can never agree in this matter. 
You can not afford to agree to such a compromise. 
The train arrived at its destination on time. 
No ordinary man can aspire to such honor. 
The dying man was attejided by his friends. 
This speculation will be attended with misfortune. 
Remember not to brag of your success. 
I have changed my old rooms for better ones. 
This form will soon change ififo another. 
Change the color from green to blue, and I shall like it. 
Do not fail to compare your results with his. 
You may compare him to a monkey, if you like. 
If you cojnply with his request it will injure you. 
Mr. Brown concurred with Mr. Jones in that opinion. 
A friend enjoys confiding itt friends. 
Your plan consists of too many details. 
The distinction consists in a very small difference. 
Why should your opinion correspond with his ? 
My mistake corresponds exactly to yours. 
Defend your honor against all traducers. 
One friend should defe7id smother fro7n calumny. 
Our country is destined to become very powerful. 
The man is said to have died of cholera, but it was really 
by violence. 

You must differ from him in such an opinion. 
Do not discourage the boy from even hard study. 



THE PREPOSITION. 1/5 

I am truly disgusted at your behavior and with you per- 
sonally. 

Why should you dissent from this opinion ? 

Young Parvenu was enautored of her beauty and with her 
wealth. 

It will do no harm to indulge in a little pleasantry. 

I will introduce you to the proprietor, and he will introduce 
you into the establishment. 

You should not intrude upon him at such a time, nor even 
into his premises. 

He is too anxious in looking for news. 

Do not look at such a repulsive sight. 

Look after your business carefully if you wish to succeed. 

Why should you meddle with his affairs ? 

The waters of the Ohio mijigle with those of the Mississippi. 

My friend will object to that, and against any such measure. 

It is better to omit that fro7n the text. 

The village is overwhelmed by the calamity. 

Your cousin was overwhelmed with confusion. 

No explorer has yet penetrated ijito the interior. 

His teacher was well pleased with the boy's record. 

A workman should not be prejudiced against his employer. 

May we all be preserved from danger ! 

I can not prevail upon him to change his opinion. 

The general prevailed over his enemies in two battles. 

Y^Q. profited YCiMQ\\ by bitter experience. 

Recojicile him to his brother if you can. 

Virtue can never be reconciled with vice. 

The physician relieved his patient of the disease, and the 
patient was relieved from all anxiety. 

Alexander the Great reduced Persia under subjection. 

The explosion reduced the building to atoms. 

You can never rely upon any of his statements. 

A hopeful man will rise above his misfortunes. 

Let me strip this subject of its technicality. 

Never swerve from what is right. 

It is useless to sympathize with him. 

My brother was united to him in warm friendship. 



1/6 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

This element will not chemically unite with the other. 
The coining of money is vested in the House of Represent- 
atives. 

Alexander III of Russia is vested with despotic power. 
I am weary of such foolish conversation. 

(7) The Conjunction. 

Nouns and Pronouns. — (i) Conjunctions generally 
connect the same cases of nouns and pronouns. 

Verbs. — (i) Conjunctions generally connect sim- 
ilar moods and tenses of verbs. 

Correspondence.- — (i) Some conjunctions and con- 
junctive adverbs have their corresponding connec- 
tives. The latter connective is often omitted. As 
generally requires as ; either^ or ; if, then ; neither, 
nor ; not only, but also ; so, as ; so, that ; though, 
yet ; whether, or. 

Illustrations of Above Rules. 

Nouns and Pronouns. — (i) You^ he, and / can not be mis- 
taken. 

Verbs. — (i) If he sees the mistake and corrects it, you 
should not blame him. 

Instead of boasting and pretending, we should try to keep 
silence and to perforin. 

Such a man has been and ever will be mistrusted. 

My friend was once rich, but he is now quite poor. 

Correspondence. — (i) Lucy is not as good looking as her 
sister. 

You should either go or say nothing more about it. 

If you are wrong, then you should apologize. 

Neither your son nor mine is responsible for the damage. 

I have spoken not only once, but also many times. 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. IJ/ 

It is possible to be so nice as to be disagreeable. 

So that you succeed I shall be satisfied. 

Though you can fret me, yet you can not play upon me. 

Whether you go or stay is immaterial to me. 



Suggestive Questions. 



1. What rules for the use of the noun do not belong to 
technical grammar ? 

2. What is there peculiar about the object of an adjective 
phrase after a limiting noun ? 

3. What is there peculiar about the double possessive? 

4. Why is the double possessive 2l necessity ? 

5. How can you tell when a present participle is used as a 
noun ? 

6. Give five illustrations in which of with its object and the 
possessive are not equivalent. 

7. In the expression — a few men — of what number is a ? 

8. Why is the fourth rule under Omissions of the Article 
necessary ? 

9. Why should the noun or adjective that does not admit an 
article be placed y^r^'/ in a succession ? 

10. When may such expressions as fuller^ most excellent^ 
and 7nost perfect become good English ? 

11. How can you tell when an adjective in the predicate be- 
longs to the subject ? 

12. What serious objection is there to rule four, under Nujn- 
ber of the Personal Pronouns ? What is a better form of sen- 
tence ? 

13. How can you tell when a collective noun conveys the 
idea of unity ? 

14. Why is it best to use that after who ? 

15. Why is it best to use that after the antecedents of both 
a person and a thing ? 

16. Of the demonstratives this, that ; former, latter; one, 
other; which will make the thought clearest? 



178 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

17. Why is it so easy to ms^ pronouns ambiguously ? 

18. What justifies the use of a noun and \\s pronoun as nom- 
inative to the same verb ? 

19. In rule four, under Number of the Verb, why should the 
plural verb be placed next to the plural subject ? 

20. What advantage is there in using the present tense in 
the following ? I will go as soon as he comes. 

21. It is difficult to determine the time of the infinitive. 
Give illustrations for both th.Q present and the perfect. 

22. It is difficult to determine when to use the subjunctive 
under rule one, because the mood is going out of use. Give 
illustrations to verify the rule. 

23. Under the second rule of the infinitive, is placing the 
adverb between the sign and the verb likely to become good 
usage ? 

24. Give illustrations of the third rule under Miscellaneous 
Rules of the Verb. Why so much trouble in its correct use ? 

25. Suppose the rules for the position of the adverb are not 
followed : will you be necessarily wrong ? 

26. In the following line from Goldsmith's " Deserted Vil- 
lage," is only an adjective or an adverb ? " One only master 
grasps the whole domain." 

27. What is the difference in meaning between: Will you 
walk in the house? and Will you walk into the house? 

28. Give a reason, if you can, why He lives in New York is 
better than He lives at New York. 

29. English writers often use different to ; is it as good as 
different from ? 

30. What is the difference between differ from and dffer 
with ? 

31. What is the difference between die of and die with ? 

III. Arrangement of Words. 

(i) The idiom of a language is the way in which 
people who use that language correctly arrange the 
words in the mind before giving utterance to a 



ENGLISH IDIOM. 1 79 

thought. Nearly all the mistakes made by foreign- 
ers of a different speech from the English are due 
to the arrangement of English words in the idiom 
of their own language. In English we say: He 
has just gone out of the house ; the German would 
be Hkely to say: He is from the house just out 
gone. 

In English, the general rule for the idiom is to 
keep words as near where they belong as possible. 
The complete idiom, therefore, is as follows: 

(i) The adjective or adjectives belonging to the subject. 

(2) The subject. 

(3) The adjective phrase or clause belonging to the subject. 

(4) The verb. 

(5) The adverb, when the verb has no auxiliary. 

(6) The adverbial phrase or clause. 

(7) The adjective or adjectives belonging to the object. 

(8) The object. 

(9) The adjective phrase or clause belonging to the object. 

(2) Inversion, — Any change of the above idiom is 
an inversion. Inversion has much to do with the 
variety, melody, beauty, and strength of a sentence. 
In poetry especially, the poet would be very much 
hampered if compelled to follow the idiom. The 
fact is, he could write very little poetry by doing 
so. When Gray wrote, 

Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 
A youth to fortune and to fame unknown, 

the inversions he used contributed very much to 
the melody and beauty of the lines. How tame is 
the idiomatic form in comparison! 



l80 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

A youth, unknown to fortune and to fame, 
Rests here, upon the lap of earth, his head. 

When strength is required, whatever word ex- 
presses the predominant thought is placed first. 
''Great is Diana of the Ephesians " is a sentence 
in its most emphatic form, because the predominant 
word is the first one uttered. The beauty of a 
thought is sometimes increased in the same way. 
In Gray's "Elegy," the line, 

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 

is much more beautiful than the idiomatic form, 
because it suggests the scene as visible at the pres- 
ent moment. The following is idiomatic : 

The glimmering landscape fades now on the sight. 

Inversion, therefore, adds very much to the flex- 
ibility of the language, and is rarely a disadvantage 
unless clearness and unity are disregarded. 

(3) Unity. — Unity, when applied to a sentence, 
means a strict adherence to one leading subject. It 
is rarely violated except in long, complicated sen- 
tences which are constructed without much regard 
to clearness. Because of our want of technical 
grammar, the long sentence is not only unwieldy, 
but also leads a writer into the very worst errors in 
rhetoric. In the following: 

The general then ordered his division forward, marched it 
in column until within a few hundred yards of the enemy, 
then deployed it rapidly into line and charged vigorously. 



VARIETY. 1 8 I 

The subject, general, is before the mind through- 
out the sentence. Suppose, however, it were writ- 
ten: 

The general then ordered his division forward, which 
marched in column until the enemy were within a few hundred 
yards, when it deployed rapidly into line and charged 
vigorously. 

The three other subjects, which, enemy, and it, 
although dependent, distract the attention and spoil 
the unity of the sentence. 

(4) Variety. — Besides the variety secured by in- 
versions, much may be obtained by expressing a 
thought in different words. The two extreme forms 
of expression are found in the use of idiomatic and 
periodic sentences. 

The idiomatic sentence permits very little variety, 
the adverb being the only form of word admitting 
a change. 

The periodic sentence, in which the leading clause 
is reserved until the end, may be almost as inflexi- 
ble. 

By combining these two forms, the same thought 
may sometimes be expressed in many ways. A 
judicious use of variety prevents monotony of ex- 
pression. 

A good plan to follow, where variety is sought, 
and sometimes it must be carefully sought, is to 
commence with the idiomatic form and work from 
that to other desirable or better forms. This will 
often lead to recasting the entire sentence, a neces- 
sary step growing out of the preceding work. 



1 82 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

In the sentence, 

Grand, gloomy, and peculiar, he sat upon the throne a scep- 
tered hermit, wrapped in the solitude of his own originality, 

the idiomatic form is, 

Grand, gloomy, and peculiar, he, a sceptered hermit, sat 
upon the throne, wrapped in the solitude of his own origi- 
nality. 

In contrast with this is the periodic form : 

Grand, gloomy, and peculiar, a sceptered hermit wrapped in 
the solitude of his own originality, he sat upon the throne. 

Besides these forms, the following are the best 
without changing any of the words: 

Wrapped in the solitude of his own originality he sat upon 
the throne, a sceptered hermit, grand, gloomy, and peculiar. 

He sat upon the throne, grand, gloomy, and peculiar, a 
sceptered hermit, wrapped in the solitude of his own origi- 
nality. 

A sceptered hermit, grand, gloomy, and peculiar, he sat 
upon the throne, wrapped in the solitude of his own origi- 
nality. 

Preparatory to a change of words or a recasting 
of the sentence, the words susceptible of change 
should be written down and their synonymous forms 
written after them. In the above: 

Grand = msLgnificent, splendid, wonderful. 
G/oomy = morose, solemn, grave, reserved. 
Peculiar = queer, odd, singular, eccentric. 
Sceptered=^ crowned, royal, kingly, regal. 
Hermit =rec\ViSt, solitary. 



DICTION. 183 

Sat upon = occupied, filled, possessed. 
Tyrone =^ kingdom, realm, government. 
^^<2//^^ = absorbed, secluded. 
6'(9///z/^^ = loneliness, seclusion, isolation. 
Originality = genius, individuality. 

By selecting the best of these synonyms, it is 
very doubtful whether the original sentence can be 
equaled in beauty and strength. The following will 
illustrate this: 

Wonderful, grave, and eccentric, he possessed the realm, a 
kingly recluse, secluded by the isolation of his genius. 

A royal solitary, magnificent, solemn, and eccentric, he sat 
upon the thnone, wrapped in the loneliness of his own individ- 
uality. 

Practice in this kind of composition will do very 
much towards enabling the pupil to determine how 
well or how ill an author may do. It is by this 
kind of comparison that the diction of an author is 
mastered. 

Illustrative of this work, examine the diction of 
the following stanzas of Gray's "Elegy" apart 
from the figurative words. Figurative words intro- 
duce a new element for consideration which will be 
taken up in the next chapter. 

Beneath those rugged elms, that yew tree's shade. 
Where heaves the turf in many a moldering heap, 

Each in his 7iarro'w cell forever laid. 
The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 

The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 

The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, 

The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn. 
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. 



184 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

In the first line, why did not the author select 
the word oaks instead of elms, and fir instead of 
vewf They certainly would not have injured the 
meter, and they harmonize with rugged and shade : 

Beneath those rugged oaks, that fir tree's shade. 

We can not say that the elms were particularly 
noticeable trees in that grave-yard, for several grave- 
yards claim the honor of being the scene of the 
poem ; and as the oak is more abundant than the 
elm in England, it would be rash to assert that the 
elm is used almost exclusively for grave-yards. The 
trees in Stoke Pogis, therefore, where the poem 
was probably located, are not unusually conspicuous 
on account of elms. 

For a reason that we may not be able fully to 
explain, we perceive that the word oaks grates 
harshly on the imagination. Besides, the oak is a 
coarser looking tree than the elm ; the limbs are 
heavier and not nearly so graceful, and the shade is 
not so dense ; hence, we can infer that the author's 
delicate perception of the fitness of things com- 
pelled him to choose the word he did. 

With the word yew it is different. It is an ever- 
green, like the fir, and gives more shade ; but its 
selection was not due to these facts. It is histor- 
ical in suggestion. The old Celtic priests may have 
planted it in grave-yards as a symbol of immortality. 
The famous yew in the church-yard at Darley, in 
Derbyshire, England, is estimated to be 1300 years 
old. What is more probable is that the yew was 



DICTION. 185 

planted in grave-yards to save it from needless de- 
struction. Out of the wood of this tree were made 
the bows of those hardy yeomen, whose arrows 
slew the bravest steel-clad knights of France at 
Cregy and Poitiers. The yew, therefore, is a mon- 
ument symbolical of the growth and importance of 
the middle class in England. 

In the second line, suppose the word turf is 
changed to sod^ which is also, as turf is, a figure of 
synecdoche : 

Where heaves the sod in many a moldering heap. 

The dictionary gives the two words exactly the 
same meaning. Was it mere chance, then, that led 
Gray to select the word tiirff Or was it the next 
thing to chance, — the petty alliteration of the and 
turff The most probable reason, because the most 
rational, is that he thought of the radical meanings, 
which are very different ; or, that turf suggests the 
fine earth or loam into which all bodies decay. 

In the third line, suppose narrow is changed to 
lonely : 

Each in his lonely cell forever laid. 

Lo7iely has the advantage of narrow because figu- 
rative. Gray must have thought of this, and yet 
he preferred the literal word. Why? Narrow im- 
presses the reader with the restricted limits of the 
grave; lonely, simply with its isolation. This is a 
very marked poetical difference. 

In the fourth line, let us change I'ude and hamlet 
to rough and village: 

^E. E.— 16. 



1 86 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

The rough forefathers of the village sleep. 

Rough is a coarser word than rude, implying vul- 
garity of manner and thought ; whereas, 7ude simply 
means uncultivated. 

Hamlet is more of a diminutive than village, be- 
ing the smallest collection of houses that can con- 
stitute a neighborhood ; and, therefore, in the 
poem, this must have been, to Gray, a preferable 
word. 

In the sixth line, why did not the poet use the 
words sparrow and chattering instead of swallow and 
twittering f 

The sparrow chattermg from the straw-built shed. 

The swallow is a little bird, graceful in flight and 
apparently cheerful in disposition ; the sparrow is 
ungainly in flight and quarrelsome in disposition. 
As a part of the poetical surroundings of this quiet, 
cheerful morn, the former is more harmoniously ap- 
propriate than the latter. 

In the seventh line, shrill might be changed to 
loud : 

The cock's loud clarion, or the echoing horn. 

By doing this, however, the peculiar tone of the 
crowing of a cock would not have been impressed 
upon the mind of the reader, nor would the resem- 
blance to the sound of a bugle be nearly so good. 

In the eighth line the reading might be: 

No more shall rouse them from their humble bed. 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. 1 8/ 

This would have pleased the critics who insist 
upon taking the word bed literally ; but Gray evi- 
dently meant lowly bed to be synonymous with 
narrow cell, and therefore metaphorical in meaning. 

In order to make the comparison of the two 
stanzas easier, place them, as amended in the previ- 
ous criticisms, by the side of the correct stanzas. 
The amended stanzas are as follows : 

Beneath those rugged oaks, that fir tree's shade, 
Where heaves the sod in many a moldering heap, 

Each in his lonely cell forever laid, 
The rough forefathers of the village sleep. 

The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 

The sparrow chattering from the straw-built shed, 

The cock's loud clarion, or the echoing horn, 
No more shall rouse them from their humble bed. 



Suggestive Questions. 



I. Put the following quotations from ''The Deserted Vil- 
lage" into idiomatic form: 

Sweet was the sound, when oft at evening's close, 
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose. 

A man he was to all the country dear, 
And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 

At church, with meek and unaffected grace. 
His looks adorned the venerable place. 

A man severe he was, and stern to view ; 
I knew him well, and every truant knew. 



1 88 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

In arguing, too, the parson owned his skill, 

For e'en though vanquished, he could argue still. 

2. Show what advantage the above inversions are to the 
expression of the thoughts they contain. 

3. Show that the following quotations are periodic in form : 

Beside the bed where parting life was laid, 
And sorrow, guilt, and pain, by turns dismayed. 
The reverend champion stood. 

Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, 
With blossomed furze unprofitably gay, 
There in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule, 
The village master taught his little school. 

4. In the following quotation, the first form is as Goldsmith 
wrote it ; the second is a change into the periodic form. 
Which is the better? Why? 

His lovely daughter, lovelier in her tears, 
The fond companion of his helpless years, 
Silent went next, neglectful of her charms, 
And left a lover's for her father's arms. 

Silent went next, neglectful of her charms, 
And left a lover's for her father's arms, 
The fond companion of his helpless years, 
His lovely daughter, lovelier in her tears. 

5. In the following sentences from Goldsmith's essay on 
" Happiness of Temper " make all the changes you can with- 
out materially changing the thought : 

Writers of every age have endeavored to show that pleas- 
ure is in us, and not in the objects offered for our amusement. 
If the soul be happily disposed, every thing becomes capable 
of affording entertainment, and distress will almost want a 
name. 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. 1 89 

6. In the following quotation from Goldsmith's "Traveler," 
compare the italicised words with the corresponding amended 
words below : 

Till time may come, when, stript of all her charms, 
The land of scholars, and the nurse of arms. 
Where noble stems transmit the patriot flame, 
Where kings have toiled, and poets wrote for fame, 
One sink of level avarice shall lie, 
And scholars, soldiers, kings, unhonored die. 

Till time may come, when, robbed of all her charms, 
The home of scholars and the nurse of arms. 
Where lordly stems transmit the patriot flame, 
Where monarchs toiled and poets starved for fame. 
One sink of wretched avarice shall lie, 
And scholars, soldiers, kings, dishonored die. 



CHAPTER V. 



RHETORICAL FIGURES. 



Figurative expressions are such as appeal, in 
meaning, either directly to the imagination, or to 
the imagination and intellect, or to the intellect 
alone. 

The first are figures of Imagination; the second 
include Wit^ Hmnor, and Satire ; the third are figures 
of Emphasis. 

In the first and second classes, two notions are 
always expressed or implied; in the third class 
there is only one notion. 

In figures with two notions, one notion will either 
be substituted for the other, or compared or con- 
trasted with it, or simply placed before the imagi- 
nation. 

In figures of imagination, the classification may 
be made into: (i) Words; (2) Thoughts. 

I. Word Figures of Imagination. 

(i) Metony^ny. — One notion is substituted for 
another that is merely closely connected with it. 

(2) Epithet of Metofiymy, — An adjective that is 
used as Metonymy. 

(3) Synecdoche. — One notion denoting a part is 
substituted for another notion denoting the whole. 

(190) 



FIGURES OF IMAGINATION. I9I 

(4) Epithet of Synecdoche. — An adjective that is 
used as synecdoche. 

(5) Metaphor. — One notion is substituted for 
another that closely resembles it. 

(6) Metaphorical Epithet. — An adjective that is 
used as a metaphor. 

(7) Simile. — One notion is compared with another 
that closely resembles it. When both notions are 
not expressed, the other notion is easily seen. The 
term of comparison — generally like or as — is always 
expressed. 

(8) Allusion. — One notion, of a mythological, 
scriptural, historical, or purely literary character is 
compared with another that closely resembles it. 
Only one notion is expressed, and the term of com- 
parison is always omitted. 

(9) Personification. — One notion, denoting an ab- 
stract quality, an inferior animal, or an inanimate 
object, is substituted for another notion that is a 
personality. 

(10) Tiine. — One notion, denoting present time, 
substituted for another denoting past or future time. 



II. Thought Figures of Imagination. 

(i) Apostrophe. — One notion is the speaker; the 
other, the imaginary personality addressed by the 
speaker. 

(2) Sermocination. — One notion is the imaginary 
personality ; the other, the speaker addressed by 
the personality. 



192 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

(3) Vision. — One notion is the speaker; the other, 
what he represents himself as seeing. 

(4) Allegory. — One notion is a general truth ; the 
other, the figurative expression of it. Abstract 
qualities are generally personified. 

(5) Fable. — One notion is a moral truth; the 
other, the figurative expression of it. The lower 
animals and inanimate objects are generally personi- 
fied. 

(6) Parable. — One notion is a religious truth ; the 
other, its figurative expression. There is no per- 
sonification. 

(7) Hyperbole. — One notion is the simple thought; 
the other, its exaggerated form. This figure is also 
used for emphasis, and often contributes to wit and 
humor. 

(8) Irony. — One notion is the thought intended; 
the other, the opposite thought which is expressed. 
This figure is also used for emphasis, and contributes 
to satire. 

(9) Wit. — One notion is the simple thought; the 
other, the contrasted thought that excites the sense 
of the ludicrous. The ludicrous contrast must be 
so startling to the imagination that no exercise of 
judgment is necessary to see the contrast. 

(10) Humor. — One notion is the simple thought; 
the other, the contrasted thought that excites the 
sense of the ludicrous. The ludicrous contrast 
must not be so startling but that the judgment caa 
assist the imagination in determining the contrast. 

(11) Satire. — One notion is the simple thought; 
the other, the contrasted thought which implies 



FIGURES OF EMPHASIS. 1 93 

censure. The two forms of satire are: (i) direct; 
(2) ironical. Both forms of satire may be humor- 
ous. 

III. Figures of Emphasis. 

Figures of emphasis are used when the intention 
is to intensify the expression of the thought inde- 
pendently of imagery. They, therefore, appeal to 
the judgment only. 

(i) Exclamation. — This is used in giving utterance 
to strong emotion. It may be a single word or an 
entire thought. 

(2) Repetition. — In this figure, the same words are 
repeated one or more times. It is difficult to use, 
because the general effect of repetition is to weaken 
the thought. 

(3) Interrogation. — This figure consists in asking a 
question without expectation of an answer. When 
used sparingly it is very effective. 

(4) Negation. — ^This is the expression of a thought 
in a negative instead of a direct form. It adds ma- 
terially to variety when used occasionally. 

(5) Antithesis. — This is the placing of opposite 
thoughts in juxtaposition. When used to excess, as 
in Pope's poems, it renders the style monotonous 
and tiresome. Its effect is to produce a balanced 
sentence that looks quite artificial. 

Interrogation, negation, and antithesis help very 
much in giving variety of form to the English sen- 
tence. 

(6) Climax. — A climax is a graduated series of 
thoughts in which the strongest thought is placed 

E. E.-17. 



194 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

last. Sometimes wonderful strength of expression 
is obtained by the use of this figure. 

IV. Analysis. 

The first eight of the word figures of imagina- 
tion, and wit, humor, and satire require formal 
analysis. 

The following method is a very satisfactory one. 

The different forms of m.etonymy and synecdoche 
are added because of the difficulty of analysis and 
the necessity, therefore, of verification. 

(i) The two notions. 

(2) Relationship of the two notions, and proof 
of relationship : 

(i) Connection; (2) Resemblance; (3) Contrast. 

(3) Character of relationship : 

(i) Connection — (i) Merely close connection — metonymy. 

(2) A part for the whole — synecdoche. 
{2) Resemblance — (i) Substitution with resemblance — metaphor. 
(2) Comparison with resemblance. 

(i) Term of comparison expressed — simile. 
(2) Term of comparison omitted — allusion. 

(3) Contrast — (i) Ludicrous appeal to imagination rather 

than to judgment — wit. 

(2) Ludicrous appeal to judgment rather 

than to imagination — humor. 

(3) Censure. 

(i) Direct; (2) Humorous — satire. 

(4) Name of figure : 

(i) Metonymy. (2) Epithet ot metonymy. (3) Synecdoche. 

(4) Epithet of synecdoche. (5) Metaphor. (6) Metaphorical 
epithet. (7) Simile. (8) Allusion. (9) Wit. (10) Humor. 
(11) Satire. 



EXERCISES IN METONYMY. I95 

(5) Forms of figure — Metonymy: 

(i) Cause for effect. (2) Effect for cause. (3) Container 
for the thing contained. (4) Instrument for the agent. (5) 
Time for what existed or happened in it. (6) Possessor for 
the thing possessed. (7) Sign for the thing signified. (8) An 
appositive put for its noun. 

Synecdoche : 

(i) Part for the whole. (2) Species for genus. (3) Indi- 
vidual for species. (4) Quality for the individual. (5) Attri- 
bute for the individual. (6) Material for the thing made. (7) 
Singular for the plural. (8) A determinate number for an in- 
determinate. (9) The less for the greater. 



EXERCISES. 

In many of the following illustrative exercises only such figures are 
marked as come under the particular figure that is illustrated. As the pupils 
become familiar with the analysis, the remaining figures can be worked out. 
Under Metonymy, the small figures before words indicate the form. 

Metonymy. 

Model. 

For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn. 

(i) The two notions are hearth and ^re. 

(2) The relationship is connection, because the hearth is the 
receptacle for the fire. 

(3) Character of relationship, merely close connection. 

(4) The figure is, therefore, metonymy. 

(5) The form is : container for thing contained. 

(i) The two notions are blazing and burning. 

(2) The relationship is connection, because the burning 
causes the blazing. 

(3) The character of relationship, merely close connection. 

(4) The figure is, therefore, an epithet of metonymy. 

(5) The form is : effect for cause. 



196 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Now thrive the armorer's, and honor's '^thought 
Reigns solely in the ^breast of every man. — Henry V. 

And ^sword and '^shield 

In "^bloody field, 

Doth win immortal fame. — He7iry V, 

And all my mother came into my eyes, 
And gave me up to "^ tears. — Henry V. 

Grim visaged war hath smoothed his "^wrinkled front. 

— Richard III. 

And where the offence is, let the great "^ax fall. — Hamlet. 
'^ Pale ashes of the ^house of Lancaster. — Richard HI. 

^ heart, lose not thy ^jzature ; let not ever 

The soul of Nero enter this firm bosom. — Hamlet. 

1 '11 make thee famous by my ^^en 

And glorious by my ^ sword. — Marquis of Montrose. 

Silence that dreadful ^bell ; it frights the isle 
From her propriety. — Othello. 

No sense have they of ills to come, 
No care beyond ^to-day. — Gray. 

Oh ! blessed with temper, whose unclouded ray 
Can make ^to-morrow cheerful as ^to-day. — Pope. 

When went there by an ^age since the great flood 

But it was famed with more than with one man ? — Julius Ccesar. 

Your eyes are lode-stars, and your ^tongue s sweet air 
More tuneable than ^lark to shepherd's 7^'^^. 

— Midsummer Nighfs Dream. 

So every bondsman in his own hand bears 

The ^power to cancel his captivity. — Julius Ccesar. 



EXERCISES IN SYNECDOCHE. 1 9/ 

Not only hating David, but the ^king. 

For these fellows of infinite "^tongue that can ^rhyme them- 
selves into ladies' favors, they can always '^reason themselves 
out again. — Henry V, 

If you do free your children from the ''sword, 

Your children's children quit it in your "^age, — Richard III. 

O let us have him, for his ''silver hairs 

Will purchase us a good opinion 

And buy men's "^voices to commend our deeds. — Julius CcEsar. 

Nay, the man hath no wit that can not, from the ^rising 
of the lark to the ^lodging of the latnb, vary deserved praise 
on my palfrey. — Henry V. 

All places that the ^eye of heaven visits 

Are to a wise man ports and happy havens. — Richard 11, 

The ^lining of his coffers shall make coats 

To deck our soldiers for these Irish wars. — Richard II. 

Synecdoche. 

Under Synecdoclie the small figures before words indicate the form. 

Model. 

The torrent roared, and we did buffet it 
With lusty sinews. — Julius Ccesar. 

(i) The two notions are sinews and muscles or arms. 

(2) The relationship is connection, because sinews are a 
necessary part of muscles, and muscles of arms. 

(3) The character of the relationship is a part for the whole. 

(4) The figure is, therefore, synecdoche. 

(5) The form of the figure is : part for the whole. 

Pity, you ancient "^stones, those tender ^ babes 

Whom ^envy hath immured within your "^ walls. — Richard III. 



198 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Lo, here, this long usurped ^royalty * 

From the dead '^te^nples of this bloody ^wretch 

Have I plucked off, to grace thy '^ brows withal. — Richard III. 

But tell 

Why thy canonized '^ bones ^ hearsed in death, 

Have burst their cerements ; why thy "^sepulcher 

Wherein we saw thee quietly "^inurned. 

Hath oped his ponderous and marble jaws 

To cast thee up again. — Hamlet. 

My ancestors did from the "^streets of Rome 

The ^ Tarquiii drive, when he was called a king. — Julius CcBsar. 

And more true joy ^ Marcellus exiled feels 
Than ^ Ccesar with a senate at his heels. — Pope. 

no ! the apprehension of the ^good 

Gives but the greater feeling to the ^ worse. — Richard II. 

Our ^gayness and our ^gilt are all besmirched with rainy 
marching in the painful field. — Henry V. 

^ Whitebeards have armed their thin and hairless "^scalps 
Against thy ^majesty. — Richard II. 

Awake remembrance of these ^valiant dead. — Henry V. 

1 dare not fight ; but I will wink and hold out my ^iron. 

— Henry V. 
And as he plucked his cursed ^sieel away, 
Mark how the blood of Caesar followed it. — Julius Ccesar. 

We say that Shore's wife hath a pretty "^foot, 

A cherry '^lip, a bonny "^eye, a passing pleasing tongue. 

— Richard III. 

How now, my ^love! why is your '^ cheek so pale ? 

How chance the roses there do fade so fast ? — Richard II. 



EXERCISES IN METAPHOR. 1 99 

The painful warrior, famoused for fight, 
After a ^thousand victories, once foiled, 
Is from the books of honor razed quite, 
And all the rest forgot for which he toiled. — Sonnet XXV. 

^Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth 

Unseen, both when we wake and when we sleep. — Milton. 

Ay, every ^inck a king. — King Lear. 

Metaphor. 

Model. 

Therefore in fierce te7npest is he coming, 

In thunder and in earthquake like a Jove. — Henry V. 

(i) The two notions are tempest and war. 

(2) The relationship is resemblance, because both war and 
a tempest are destructive. 

(3) Character of relationship is substitution with resem- 
blance. 

(4) The figure is, therefore, a metaphor. 

(i) The two notions dixe fierce and destructive, 

(2) The relationship is resemblance, because an angry 
beast does damage just as a tempest does. 

(3) The character of the relationship is substitution with re- 
semblance. 

(4) The figure is, therefore, a metaphorical epithet. 

And my thrice-puissant liege 

Is in the very May-morn of his youth. — Henry V. 

Their lips were four red roses on a stalk, 

Which in their sum??zer beauty kissed each other. — He7iry V, 

O God of battles ! steel my soldiers' hearts. — Henry V. 

The sun doth gild our armor. — Henry V. 



200 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

For oaths are straws, men's faiths are wafer-cakes, 
And Hold-fast is the only dog, my duck. — Henry V. 

Look ye, how they change ! 
Their cheeks are paper. — Hejiry V. 

My voice is ragged : I know I can not please you. 

— As You Like It. 
Sweet are the uses of adversity, 

Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, 

Wears yet a precious jewel in his head ; 

And this our life, exempt from public haunt, 

Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, 

Sermons in stones, and good in every thing. — As You Like It. 

'T is not your inky brows, your black silk hair. 

Your bugle eyeballs, nor your cheek of cream 

That can entame my spirits to your worship. — As You Like It. 

that this too, too solid flesh would melt. 
Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew ! 

Or that the Everlasting had not fixed 
His canon 'gainst self-slaughter. — Ha7nlet. 

Simile. 

Model. 

The ripest fruit first falls, and so doth he. — Richard II. 

(i) The two notions are ripest fruit and he. 

(2) The relationship is resemblance, because the person re- 
ferred to has matured early and completed his career, just as 
the early ripened fruit falls and perishes, 

(3) Character of relationship : comparison, with term of 
comparison so expressed. 

(4) The figure is, therefore, a simile. 

1 see thy glory, like a shooting star^ 

Fall to the base earth from the firmament. — Richard II. 



EXERCISES IN SIMILE AND ALLUSION. 201 

Yet looks he like a ki7ig : behold his eye — 
As bright as is the eagle s. — Richard 11. 

And then the moon, like to a silver bow 

New-bent in heaven, shall behold the night 

Of our solemnities. — Midsummer Nighfs Dream, 

Therefore my age is as a lusty winter ^ 
Frosty but kindly. — As You Like It. 

Be thou as chaste as ice^ as pure as snow^ 
Thou shalt not escape calumny. — Hamlet. 

Is this a prologue, or the posy of a ring ? 

'Tis brief, my lord, 

As woman's love. — Hamlet. 

I, as ^neas, our great ancestor, 
Did from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder 
The old Anchises bear, so from the waves of Tiber 
Did I the tired Caesar. — Julius Ccesar. 

We are such stuff 

As dreams are made on, and our little life 

Is rounded with a sleep. — Tempest. 

Treason and murder ever kept together 

As two yoke-devils sworn to either's purpose. — Henry V, 

The strawberry grows underneath the nettle, 
And wholesome berries thrive and ripen best 
Neighbored by fruit of baser quality ; 
And so the prince obscured his contemplation 
Under the veil of wildness ; which, no doubt, 
Grew like the summer grass, fastest by night, 
Unseen, yet crescive in his faculty. — Henry V. 

Allusion. 

A large number of Allusions are what may be called double figures, as they 
contain three distinct notions. In such cases both analyses should be made. 

Model. 
Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest. — Gray. 



202 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

(i) The two notions are Milton and epic poet. 

(2) The relationship is connection, because Milton was one 
of a number of epic poets. 

(3) Character of relationship, a part for the whole. 

(4) The figure is, therefore, synecdoche. 

(5) The form is: individual for species. 

(i) The two notions are Milton and villager with undevel- 
oped poetic talent. 

(2) The relationship is resemblance, because this villager 
may have had all the poetic capabilities that Milton had, and 
may, therefore, have been like him. 

(3) Character of relationship : comparison, with only one 
notion expressed and the term of comparison omitted. 

(4) The figure is, therefore, a literary allusion. 

S?iakes in my heart-blood warmed, that sting my heart ! 
ThxQ.Q Judases, each one thrice worse than Judas. — Richard II. 

So excellent a king ; that was, to this, 
Hyperion to a satyr. — Hainlet. 

The serpent that did sting thy father's life 
Now wears his crown. — Hamlet. 

Shall I keep your hogs and eat husks with them ? What 
prodigal portion have I spent^ that I should come to such 
penury ? — As You Like It. 

Yea, at that moment 

Consideration, like an angel, came 

And whipped the offending Adam out of him, 

Leaving his body as a paradise, 

To envelop and contain celestial spirits. — He7iry V. 

I that was washed to death with fulsome wine, 
Poor Clarence, by thy guile betrayed to death ! 
To-morrow in the battle think on me. 
And fall thy edgeless sword. — Richard HI. 



EXERCISES IN PERSONIFICATION. 203 

Would any of the stock of Barrabas 

Had been her husband rather than a Christian. 

— Merchant of Venice. 

A Daniel come to judgment ! yea, a Daniel ! 
O wise young judge, how I do honor thee ! 

— MerchaJit of Venice. 

Personification. 

Model. 

For now sits expectation in the air. — Henry V. 

(i) The two notions are expectation and the personality 
given to it. 

(2) The figure, therefore, is personification. 

And you shall find his vanities forespent 
Were but the outside of the Roman Brutus, 
Covering discretion with a coat of folly. — Henry V. 

P'our lagging winters and four wanton springs 

End in a word : such is the breath of kings. — Richard //. 

Blow, blow, thou winter windy 

Thou art not so unkind 

As man's ingratitude. — As You Like It. 

He that wants money, means, and content is without three 
good friends. — As You Like It. 

But, look, the morn in russet mantle clad, 

Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastward hill. — Hamlet. 

Let me not think on't — Frailty, thy name is woman. — Hamlet. 

For loan oft loses both itself and friend, 

And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. — Hamlet, 

Remember thee ! 

Ay, thou poor ghost, while 7nemory holds a seat 

In this distracted globe ! — Hamlet. 



204 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

To show virtue her own feature, scorn hbr own image. — Hamlet. 
O shame ! where is thy blush ? — Hamlet. 

Time. 

Model. 

The plowman homeward plods his weary way. — Gray. 

( 1 ) The two notions are plods and plodded. 

(2) The figure is, therefore, time, the present tense being 
used for the past. 

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 
And all the air a solemn stillness holds^ 
Save where yon beetle wheels his droning flight. 
And drowsy tinkhngs lull the distant folds. — Gray. 

On some fond breast the parting soul relies, 
Some pious drops the closing eye requires ; 
E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries. 
E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires. — Gray. 

Miscellaneous Exercises. 

htcluding the Preceding Figures. 

Now by the holy mother of our Lord, 

The citizens are mum and speak not a word. — Richard IH. 

You cloudy princes and heart-sorrowing peers, 

That bear this mutual heavy load of moan, 

Now cheer each other in each other's love. — Richard III. 

Marry, they say my uncle grew so fast 

That he could gnaw a crust at two years old ; 

'Twas full two years ere I could get a tooth. 

Grandam, this would have been a biting ']Q.st. — Richard HI. 

Sweet prince, the untainted virtue of your years 

Hath not yet dived into the world's deceit. — Richard III. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 20$ 

O but they say the tongues of dying men 
Enforce attention like deep harmony. — Richard II. 

For in my youth I never did apply 

Hot and rebellious liquors in my blood. — As You Like It. 

'Tis bitter cold, and I am sick at heart. — Hamlet. 

Give thy thoughts no tongue. — Ha7nlet. 

Give every man thy ear^ but few thy voice. — Hamlet. 

Thy face is valanced since I saw thee last : 
Comest thou to beard me in Denmark ? — Hamlet, 

The imminent death of twenty thousand men, 
That for a fantasy and trick of fame, 
Go to their graves like beds. — Hamlet 

Have I in conquest stretched my arjn so far, 

To be afeared to tell graybeards the truth ? — Julius Ccesar. 

O pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth I — Julius CcBsar. 

O he sits high in all the people's hearts. — Julius Casar. 

So service shall with steeled sinews toil, 
And labor shall refresh itself with hope 
To do your grace incessant services. — Henry V. 

Age, thou art shamed! 

Rome, thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods I — Julius Ccesar. 

My fate cries out, 

And makes each petty artery in this body 

As hardy as the Nemean lion's nerve. — Hamlet. 

The valiant never taste of death but once. — Julius Ccesar. 

Nor stony tower, nor walls of beaten brass. 

Nor airless dungeon, nor strong links of iron 

Can be retentive to thy strength of spirit. — Julius Ccesar, 



2o6 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

But that the Scot on his unfurnished kingdom 
Came pouring like the tide into a breach. — Henry V, 

For Pistol he hath a killing tongue and a quiet sword. — Henry V. 

To thee I do commend my watchful soul 

Ere i let fall the windows of mine eyes. — Richard HI. 

Now is the winter of our discontent 

Made glorious su7nmer by this sun of York. — Richard I H. 

Ay me, I see the downfall of our house ! 

The tiger now hath seized the gentle hind. — Richard HI. 

Your grace attended to their sugared words, 

But looked not on the poison of their hearts. — Richard HI, 

My oil-dried lamp and time-bewasted light 

Shall be extinct with age and endless night: 

My inch of taper will be burnt and done, 

And blindfold death not let me see my son. — Richard II. 

His tongue is now a stringless instrument. — Richard II. 

All the world's a stage, 

And all the men and women merely players. — As You Like It. 

And in the morn and liquid dew of youth 
Contagious blastnients are most imminent. — Hamlet. 

And in the porches of my ear did pour 

The leperous distilment : whose effect 

Holds such an enmity with blood of man 

That, swift as quicksilver, it courses through 

The natural gates and alleys of the body. — Hamlet. 

Affection ! pooh ! you speak like a green girl. — Hamlet. 

Therefore, since brevity is the soul of wit, 

And tediousness the limbs and outward flourishes ^ 

I will be brief — Hai7ilet. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 20/ 

Am I not i' the right, old Jephthah ? 

If you call me Jephthah, my lord, I have a daughter that I 
love passing well. — Hamlet. 

And I of ladies most deject and wretched, 

That sucked the honey of his music vows. 

Now see that noble and most sovereign reason, 

Like sweet bells jangled, out of tune and harsh. — Hamlet. 

I will speak daggers to her, but use none. — Hamlet. . 

Leave wringing of your hands : peace ! sit you down, 
And let me wring your heart. — Hamlet. 

rose of May I 

Dear maid, kind sister, sweet Ophelia. — Hajnlet. 

There lives within the very flame of love 

A kind of wick or snuff that will abate it. — Hamlet. 

The truth you speak doth lack some gentleness, 
And time to speak it in ; you rub the sore 
When you should bring the piaster. — Tempest. 

1 am indeed, sir, a surgeon to old shoes ; 

When they are in great danger I recover them. — fulius Ccesar, 

Dwell I but in the suburbs 

Of your good pleasure ? — fulius Ccesar, 

There is a tide in the affairs of men, 

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune : 

Omitted, all the voyage of their life 

Is bound in shallows and in jniseries. — fulius Ccesar. 

As many arrows, loosed several ways, 

Come to one mark ; as many ways meet in one town ; 

As many fresh streams meet in one salt sea; 

As many lines close in the dial's center; 

So may a thousand actions, once afoot^ 

End in one purpose. — Henry V. 



208 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

I see you stand like greyhounds in the slips, 
Straining upon the start. — Henry V. 

I can suck melancholy out of a song as a weasel sucks 
eggs. — As You Like It. 

Do you see yonder cloud that's almost in shape of a camel ? 
By the mass, and 't is like a camel, indeed. — Hamlet. 

^ Apostrophe. 

Look down, you gods, 

And on this couple drop a blessed crown! — Tempest, 

Speak, strike, redress ! Am I entreated 

To speak and strike ? O Rome, I make thee promise, 

If the redress will follow, thou receivest 

Thy full petition at the hand of Brutus \— Julius CcEsar. 

O conspiracy, 

Shamest thou to show thy dangerous brow by night. 

When evils are most free ? — Julius CcEsar. 

Sermocination. 

Henceforth I'll bear 

Affliction, till it do cry out itself: 

"Enough, enough!" and die. — King Lear. 

He's speaking now. 

Or murmuring: "Where's my serpent of old Nile?" 

For so he calls me. — Antony and Cleopatra. 

Methought I heard a voice cry : " Sleep no more ! 
Macbeth does murder sleep," the innocent sleep; 
Sleep that knits up the raveled sleave of care, 
The death of each day's life, sore labor's bath, 
Balm of hurt minds, great nature's second course, 
Chief nourisher in life's feast. — Macbeth. 



EXERCISES IN VISION AND ALLEGORY. 20g 

Vision. 

My father ! methinks I see my father ! 

O where, my lord ? 

In my mind's eye, Horatio. — Hamlet. 

Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation 
rousing herself like a strong man after sleep and shaking her 
invincible locks. — Milton. 

Allegory. 

In colleges and halls in ancient days, 

When learning, virtue, piety, and truth 

Were precious and inculcated with care, 

There dwelt a sage called Discipline. His head, 

Not yet by time completely silvered o'er, 

Bespoke him past the bounds of freakish youth, 

But strong for service still, and unimpaired. 

His eye was meek and gentle, and a smile 

Played on his lips ; and in his speech was heard 

Paternal sweetness, dignity, and love. 

The occupation dearest to his heart 

Was to encourage goodness. He would stroke 

The head of modest and ingenuous worth. 

That blushed at his own praise ; and press the youth 

Close to his side that pleased him. Learning grew, 

Beneath his care, a thriving, vig'rous plant ; 

The mind was well informed, the passions held 

Subordinate, and diligence was choice. 

If e'er it chanced, — and sometimes chance it must, — 

That one among so many overleaped 

The limits of control, his gentle eye 

Grew stern, and darted a severe rebuke; 

His frown was full of terror, and his voice 

Shook the delinquent with such fits of awe. 

As left him not, till penitence had won 

Lost favor back again, and closed the breach. 

But Discipline, a faithful servant long, 
E. E.— 18. 



2IO ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Declined at length into the vale of years. 

A palsy struck his arm ; his sparkling eye 

Was quenched in rheums of age ; his voice unstrung, 

Grew tremulous, and moved derision more 

Than reverence, in perverse, rebeUious youth. 

So colleges and halls neglected much 

Their good old friend; and Discipline at length, 

O'erlooked and unemployed, fell sick and died. 

Then Study languished. Emulation slept, 

And Virtue fled. — Cowper. 

Fable. 

A' lion cub, of sordid mind, 

Avoided all the lion kind ; 

Fond of applause, he sought the feasts 

Of vulgar and ignoble beasts ; 

With asses all his time he spent. 

Their club's perpetual president. 

He caught their manners, looks, and airs : 

An ass in every thing but ears ! 

If e'er his highness meant a joke. 

They grinned applause before he spoke; 

But at each word what shouts of praise ! 

Good gods ! how natural he brays ! 

Elate with flattery and conceit, 

He seeks his royal sire's retreat; 

Forward, and fond to show his parts, 

His highness brays ; the Lion starts. 

" Puppy, that cursed vociferation 

Betrays thy life and conversation ; 

Coxcombs, an ever noisy race. 

Are trumpets of their own disgrace." 

"Why so severe?" the cub replies. 

Our senate always held me wise." 

*' How weak is pride ! " returns the sire. 

*' All fools are vain when fools admire ! 

But know, what stupid asses prize. 

Lions and noble beasts despise." — Gay. 



EXERCISES IN PARABLE. 211 



Parable. 

Two men went into the temple to pray ; the one a Pharisee, 
and the other a pubUcan. 

The Pharisee stood and prayed thus with himself: " God, I 
thank thee that I am not as other men are, — extortioners, un- 
just, adulterers, or even as this publican. I fast twice in the 
week, I give tithes of all I possess." 

And the publican, standing afar off, would not lift up so 
much as his eyes unto heaven, but smote upon his breast, 
saying: "God be merciful to me, a sinner." 

I tell you this man went down to his house justified rather 
than the other ; for every one that exaUeth himself shall be 
abased, and he that humbleth himself shall be exalted. — 
Luke xviii. 

Hyperbole. 

And if thou prate of mountains, let them throw 
Millions of acres on us, till our ground, 
Singeing its pate against the burning zone, 
Make Ossa like a wart ! — Hamlet. 

Draw them to Tiber's banks, and weep your tears 

Into the channel, till the lowest stream 

Do kiss the most exalted shores of all. — Jidius Ccesar. 

Irony. 

Travelers ne'er did lie. 

Though fools at home condemn them. — Tempest. 

Yet Brutus says he was ambitious ! 

And, sure, he is an honorable man. — Julius CcEsar. 

I mean the matter that you read, my lord. 

Slanders, sir : for the satirical rogue says here that old men 
have gray beards, that their faces are wrinkled, their eyes 
purging thick amber and plum-tree gum, and that they have a 
plentiful lack of wit ; all which, sir, though I most potently 
and powerfully believe, yet I hold it not honesty to have it 
thus set down. — Hamlet. 



212 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Wit. 



It is absolutely impossible to draw a clearly marked dividing line between 
wit and humor. The lighter forms of humor, such as at once excite a sense 
of the ludicrous without any apparent exercise of the judgment, may be 
classed as wit, and this is as close a distinction as can be made. 

Model. 

" What a lovely woman ! " said a distinguished judge of the 
court as he passed a famous beauty, " What an excellent 
judge!" responded the lady, who overhead the compliment 
paid her. 

(i) The two contrasting notions are judge, the presiding 
officer of a court of law, and a judge of beauty. 

(2) The contrast is suggested by excellent judge of a court, 
excellent judge of beauty, and excites a sense of the ludicrous 
without any apparent exercise of the judgment. 

(3) The expression, therefore, constitutes wit. 

A country girl, coming from the field, was told that she 
looked as fresh as a daisy kissed by the dew. *' No, indeed," 
was the simple reply, "that wasn't his name." 

A man calling to see a friend, the servant girl said he was 
out. He said : " I will step in and sit by the fire." The girl 
replied: "The fire is out, too." 

A countryman at a hotel table helped himself to his neigh- 
bor's wine. "That's cool," said the owner. "Yes," said the 
other, "it must have been on ice." 

Humor. 

Model. 

Lord Russell said : " Mr. Hume, what do you consider the 
great object of legislation?" "The greatest good to the 
greatest number." "What do you consider the greatest 
number?" "Number one," was Mr. Hume's reply. 



EXERCISES IN SATIRE. 213 

(i) The two contrasting notions are greatest ntimber in its 
proper signification, and the same expression in its restricted 
meaning. 

(2) The contrast is suggested by greatest number, the ma- 
jority of the people of a nation ; nujnber one, the selfishness 
or corrupt motives of the politician who makes the law, — and 
excites a sense of the ludicrous by means of an exercise of 
the judgment. 

(3) The expression, therefore, constitutes humor. 

A witness being called, and no response being made, an 
elderly man rose and informed the court that he had gone. 
"Gone where?" asked the judge. "That I can not tell," 
said the man, "he is dead." 

"No," remarked Fogg, "I don't go to places of amusement 
anymore." "What do you mean ? " asked Brown; "didn't 
I see you at the theater night before last?" "Very likely," 
replied Fogg, "but you can hardly call a theater a place of 
amusement when there are two women with their heads to- 
gether in front of you, and two confounded chatterers right 
behind you." 

Dr. Radcliffe, while dining at a convivial party, refused to 
leave it to attend a sick woman. Her husband thereupon 
picked him up bodily, and, forcing him into a carriage, drove 
off with him. The doctor at first was enraged, but finally 
took it as a joke, and said: "Now, you impudent dog, I'll be 
revenged on you, for I'll cure your wife." 

Satire. 

Model of Direct Satire. 

O worthy fool ! One that hath been a courtier. — As You Like It. 

(i) The contrasting notions are /c^/ and courtier. 

(2) The contrast is suggested by courtier, person of high 
rank and ability; worthy fool, ignorant and frivolous person, 
and implies censure. 

(3) The expression, therefore, constitutes direct satire. 



214 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Model of Ironical Satire. 

Good Corporal Nym, show thy valor and put up thy sword. 

— Henry V, 

(i) The two contrasting notions are valor ^ and its opposite, 
cowardice. 

(2) The contrast is suggested by valor, readiness to fight ; 
put up thy sword, vain boasting, and implies censure. 

(3) As the opposite is said to what is intended, irony is used. 

(4) The expression, therefore, constitutes ironical satire. 

And shamed as we have been, to the very beard 
Braved and defied, and in our own sea proved 
Too weak for those decisive blows that once 
Ensured us mastery there, we yet retain 
Some small pre-eminence : we justly boast 
At least superior jockeyship, and claim 
The honors of the turf as all our own. — Cowper. 

Thou know'st 'tis common : all that lives must die, 
Passing through nature to eternity. 
Ay, madam, it is common. — Hamlet. 

You are a fishmonger. 

Not I, my lord.' 

Then I would you were so honest a man. — Hamlet. 

I did enact Julius Caesar : I was killed in the capitol : Brutus 

killed me. 
It was a brute part of him to kill so capital a calf there. 

— Hamlet. 

" Mrs. Notable says she has sent you the butter, but begs 
you to remember that she has already lent seventy-nine plate- 
fuls, which are scored on the dairy door." "Seventy-nine 
platefuls ! " exclaimed the astonished Mrs. Green, holding up 
both hands. "It is no such thing; I never had half that 
quantity ; and if I had, what is a little plateful ? I should 



FIGURES OF EMPHASIS. 21$ 

never think of keeping an account of such a trifling affair. I 
declare I have a mind never to borrow any thing of that mean 
creature again as long as I live ! " 

The above humorous satire illustrates : " For loan oft loses both itself and 
friend." — Hamlet. 

Illustrations of Figures of Emphasis. 

Excla7nation, 

I would to God that the inclusive verge 

Of golden metal that must round my brow 

Were red-hot steel to sear me to the brain ! — Richard III. 

Angels and ministers of grace defend us ! — Hamlet. 

The time is out of joint : O cursed spite, 
That ever I was born to set it right ! — Hamlet. 

heat, dry up my brains ! tears seven times salt, 
Burn out the sense and virtue of mine eye ! — Hamlet. 

Liberty ! Freedom ! Tyranny is dead ! — Julius CcBsar. 

Repetition. 

Remember March, the ides of March remember ! — Julius CcEsar. 

Was I deceived, or did a sable cloud 
Turn forth her silver lining on the night? 

1 did not err ; there does a sable cloud 

Turn forth her silver lining on the night. — Milton. 

I do not love thee, Doctor Fell, 

The reason why I can not tell: 

But this I know, and know full well, 

I do not love thee, Doctor Fell. — Tom Brown. 

Interrogation. 

Who calls me villain ? breaks my pate across ? 
Plucks off my beard, and blows it in my face ? 



2l6 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Tweaks me by the nose ? gives me the lie in the throat 

As deep as to the lungs ? who does me this ? 

Ha! 

'Swounds, I should take it ! — Hamlet. 

Dost thou come here to whine ? 

To outface me with leaping in her grave ? 

Be buried quick with her and so will I. — Hamlet. 

But when shall we be stronger ? Will it be the next week or 
the next year ? Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and 
when a British guard shall be stationed in every house ? 

— Henry. 

Negation. 

Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I have loved Rome more. 

— Julius CcEsar. 

Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman ? 

— Julius Ccesar. 

Who is here so vile that will not love his country ? 

— Julius Casar, 
What constitutes a state ? 
Not high-raised battlement or labored mound, 
Thick wall or moated gate ; 
Not cities proud with spires and turrets crowned ; 
Not bays and broad armed ports, 
Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride ; 
Not starred and spangled courts. 
Where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride. 
No : — men, high-minded men. — Sir William Jones. 

Antithesis. 

Men are April when they woo, December when they wed. 

— As You Like It. 

When beggars die there are no comets seen ; 

The heavens themselves blaze forth the death of princes. 

— Julius CcEsar. 



FIGURES OF EMPHASIS. 21/ 

Had you rather Caesar were living and die all slaves, than that 
Caesar were dead, to live all freemen ? — Julius Ccesar. 

For Art may err, but Nature can not miss. — Pope. 

Climax. 

I am disgraced, impeached, and baffled here, 

Pierced to the soul with slander's venomed spear. — Richard II. 

Remorseless, treacherous, lecherous, kindless villain! — Hamlet. 

But let me conjure you, by the rights of our fellowship, by 
the consonancy of our youth, by the obligation of our ever 
preserved love, and by what more dear a better proposer could 
charge you withal, be even and direct with me. — Hamlet. 

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 

—Julius CcEsar. 

We'll hear him, we'll follow him, we '11 die with him. 

— Julius Ccesar. 

What a piece of work is a man ! how noble in reason ! 
how infinite in faculty ! in form and moving, how express and 
admirable ! in action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, 
how like a god ! the beauty of the world ! the paragon of 
animals ! — Hamlet. 



E. E.-19. 



CHAPTER VI. 



ELEMENTS OF CRITICISM. 



The subject of criticism, broad and indefinite as 
it seems to be, can be systematically treated. It 
consists of two divisions: (i) Words ; (2) TJioughts. 

I. Verbal Criticism. 

In the consideration of words, every step that has 
thus far been taken in this book is essential to be 
followed. The greatest difficulty in the way of the 
student is in allowing himself to be carried away by 
merely verbal criticism. No writer has ever lived 
who has been absolutely perfect in the verbal, or, as 
it may be properly called, mechanical expression of 
a series of thoughts. Any one, therefore, who, in 
his criticism stops at expression, shows no mastery 
of true criticism. Some recent critics, especially, 
seem to think that the fundamental principle of 
criticism is to find fault. Faults, sometimes serious 
and even fatal ones, can always be found. The 
good things, however, which in a writer of genius 
are always many, can never be thoroughly appreci- 
ated without careful study. 

Verbal criticism is preliminary to the criticism of 
the thought. To stop, therefore, after a verbal 

(218) 



VERBAL CRITICISM. 2I9 

analysis, is to get no farther than the threshold of 
genuine criticism. 

Addison is one of the most graceful and beautiful 
of English prose writers. Subject his elegant essays 
to verbal criticism merely, and the glaring defects 
will overwhelm them. In mechanical structure, 
Pope is the most nearly perfect of the poets, except- 
ing Gray; but if his reputation depended upon this, 
no one would care to read any of his poems. The 
monotonous repetition of his antithetical couplets is 
a gross violation of the rules of verbal criticism. 

The following outline may be followed to ad- 
vantage in verbal criticism : 

(i) English and Latin Words. 

(i) A preponderance of English words leads to simplicity 
of style, and produces strength rather than beauty. 

(2) A fair proportion of each produces a polished style suit- 
able for almost any kind of composition in which beauty is 
most prominent. 

(3) A preponderance of Latin words leads to useless, in- 
verted forms, obscure expressions, and a clumsy, artificial 
style. 

(2) Poetry. 

(i) The form of verse and its suitableness to the subject. 
Conformity or non-conformity to the rules of Prosody. 

(2) Abundance or lack of imagery. Appropriateness. 
Moderation in use a standard. 

(3) Diction. 

(i) New words. (2) Useless foreign words. (3) Cant, pro- 
vincialisms, colloquialisms, slang. (4) Synonyms. (5) Ple- 
onasms. (6) Periphrases and paraphrases. (7) Conformity 
to grammar. 



220 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

(4) Arrange7nent. 

(i) Idiomatic forms produce a simple style if the sentences 
are not very long. 

(2) Inversions tend to artificiality. They add strength to 
style when carefully used. 

(3) Variety is essential in preventing monotony. 

The form in which a thought is uttered contributes very 
materially to its attractiveness and beauty. The polishing of 
a diamond is necessary in order to bring out the splendor of 
the gem, but it must be a diamond that is thus polished. All 
the art of the lapidary can not give to a piece of glass the 
properties of the diamond. 

II. Thought Criticism. 

In the analysis of a thought there are two steps : 

(i) The thought itself. 

(2) The suggestions growing out of the thought. 
Sometimes the thought stands alone ; sometimes the 
suggestions constitute all the beauty or vigor, out- 
side of mechanical form, that is to be found in the 
thought ; frequently, thought and suggestion go 
together. 

It sometimes happens that, before the verbal part 
of criticism is completed, the worthlessness of a 
thought or of a writing as a whole can be deter- 
mined. Occasionally, the verbal work will be nearly 
perfect, and serve merely to conceal the poverty of 
the thought. 

From the criticism of a single thought or group 
of thoughts, it is easy to pass to an entire composi- 
tion. The rules necessary to observe depend upon 
the character of the work. 



EPIC POETRY. 221 

(i) Epic Poet7y. — In epic poetry nothing mean or 
low or trifling should be admitted in such a way as 
to make it conspicuous. The predominant thoughts 
should be of the highest order. Whether in the 
pure epic, in which some great event with all its sur- 
roundings is described, or in the heroic epic, in 
which the exploits of some remarkable hero form 
the principal thoughts, grandeur and sublimity 
should prevail over mere beauty. The most nearly 
perfect pure epic is Homer's ''Iliad"; the best 
heroic epic. Homer's *'Odyssy." 

In English there is only one remarkable epic 
poem, — Milton's "Paradise Lost." Many poems 
have been written in epic form, but the intention 
of the writer or his lack of genius has prevented 
the critic from giving it such a classification. Spen- 
ser's ''Faery Queene" has the epic form, but the 
author's design in making it an allegory shuts out 
the poem from the severely restricted limits of the 
epic. 

In the epic, therefore, three rules form the basis 
of criticism : (i) The events to be described must 
be of sufficient magnitude to suggest the noblest 
thoughts. (2) The human characters should be 
among the greatest of mankind. (3) The surround- 
ings must correspond with the events described. 

A preponderance of puerile or commonplace 
thoughts, defective descriptions of characters or 
events, imperfect delineations of the grandest as 
well as most beautiful scenery and phenomena of 
nature, will justify the critic in rejecting the poem 
as a true epic. 



222 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

These three rules being verified, the following 
steps in criticism may be taken : 

(i) The argume7it : its logical arrangement and consistency. 

(2) The characters : personal appearance, mental and moral 
qualities, consistency of development. 

(3) Descriptio7i of scenery and locality : realism, compact- 
ness of detail. 

(4) Description of events and incidents : artistic grouping, 
the less important serving as a background for the most im- 
portant. 

(5) The Slimming up : good and bad points noted. 

(6) Conclusio7i. 

Milton's ''Paradise Lost" is the best illustration 
of an epic poem in EngHsh. The events relate to 
the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden 
• of Eden. The supernatural characters are God, the 
Son, Satan, and the angels ; the human characters, 
our first parents. The surroundings are heaven, 
hell, and the Garden of Eden. All the require- 
ments of an epic poem are, therefore, met. 

The limitations of the poet are restricted wholly 
by the supernatural characters. The difficulty in 
preserving them from human attributes is insur- 
mountable. In this respect Homer had a great 
advantage over Milton. Greek mythology is full 
of humanity. Milton's religious belief was also a 
hindrance. It lacked that breadth of grasp essen- 
tial for so great a subject. Satan is the proper 
hero of the poem, but rigid criticism of his charac- 
ter and actions would be as unfair as of Archimago 
in the "Faery Queene. " Unlimited criticism, 
therefore, must be confined to descriptions of the 
scenery of paradise and the delineations of the 



DRAMATIC POETRY. 223 

characters of Adam and Eve. Elsewhere, inequality 
of work must be expected, and treated with marked 
forbearance. 

(2) Dramatic Poetry. — Dramatic poetry has greater 
latitude than epic, but has also greater limitations. 
This makes the criticism more complex in character. 
The difficulties in the way of perfection by the 
author are more complex, also. 

Dramatic poetry may be either in the form of 
tragedy or of comedy. In a tragedy, as in an epic 
poem, the higher emotions of the soul predominate, 
the lighter passions being introduced merely as a 
background to the greater ones. In a comedy the 
lighter emotions predominate, the principal object 
of the writer being to excite a sense of pleasure or . 
simple delight. 

In the great dramas of the Greeks, three rules 
were quite closely followed. These were called the 
unities of time, place, and action. Unity of time 
required that the incidents of the play should be 
limited to the time of actual performance, and that 
time not exceed twenty-four hours. Unity of place 
made it necessary that the localities used in the play 
should not be so far apart as to interfere with the 
time of representation. In unity of action the in- 
cidents belonged to the period to which they were 
assigned ; they occurred in the localities used in the 
play ; the characters conformed to the age in which 
they lived ; and the action remained single and un- 
divided, so that none of the parts could be trans- 
formed or omitted without injuring or destroying the 
play. 



224 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

Criticism of the ancient drama was, therefore, com- 
paratively simple, and it was made more so, especi- 
ally under unity of action, because real human 
beings were not presented in that drama. Some 
passion or emotion was merely personified. 

As the modern drama deals with human life with 
all its defects and virtues, the complexity to the 
author is necessarily much greater than it was 
among the ancients. The unity of action has to be 
much broader in its application, because of con- 
formity to real life, and in doing this the other uni- 
ties have to be disregarded. 

In making a fair comparison between a play of 
Sophocles' and one of Shakespeare's, the additional 
difficulties in the way of Shakespeare should be 
taken into account. The genius of the two men, 
dramatists though they were, was essentially differ- 
ent. If Spenser, whose delineations of character 
in the ''Faery Queene " are similar to those of the 
ancient dramatists, had written a play, it would, no 
doubt, have been after the ancient form and in the 
ancient spirit. 

The criticism of Milton's ** Samson Agonistes " 
can not be based upon any other than the ancient 
rules. 

The greater difficulties of the modern dramatist 
are increased by the limitations of the stage. These 
limitations were not felt very much by the ancients 
because of almost absolute conformity to the unities 
of time and place. As the epic poet is perfectly 
unrestricted in this respect, he has a great advan- 
tage over the dramatic. 



DRAMATIC POETRY. 225 

In the drama, every thing of any importance 
must be presented in a limited space, and before an 
audience. The exits and entrances, arrangement of 
scenery, grouping of characters, dialogue, length of 
speeches, soliloquies when really alone and when in 
the presence of others on the stage, descriptions, 
gradual and logical sequence of incidents, are the 
principal points for the dramatist to keep constantly 
before him. 

These difficulties have led to the distinction be- 
tween a poetical drama and a dramatic poem. The 
latter is so written, either from design or from the 
inability of the author to do otherwise, that it can 
not be successfully presented upon the stage. 

As Shakespeare has given us our best dramatic 
forms, a critical study of his characteristic plays is 
necessary to the establishment of definite rules. 
For tragedy, ''Hamlet," *'Lear," and ''Macbeth" 
may be taken ; for comedy, ' ' The Merchant of 
Venice," '* As You Like It," "The Tempest," and 
"Midsummer Night's Dream." 

In criticism, the principal general restrictions are 
found in tragedy ; comedy has only one restriction. 
In the former, the higher and stronger emotions 
must predominate, the characters must possess de- 
cided human qualities, and the incidents must be 
worthy of the characters. In the latter, there must 
be freedom from coarse vulgarity and all obscenity. 

In both tragedy and comedy the plot must be 
logical, free from episodes, and follow these three 
rules: (i) the main idea of the plot should be fore- 
shadowed in the first scene of the first act ; (2) the 



226 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

principal characters should be introduced during the 
first act ; (3) the plot should culminate in the mid- 
dle of the play. 

The principal points of criticism for the drama 
may be arranged as follows: 

I. Verbal Criticism. 

II. Thought Criticism. 

(i) In gcjieral : the higher and stronger emotions, such as 
are excited by ambition, love, jealousy, hatred, and revenge, 
should predominate in tragedy ; and the lighter forms of 
emotion serve merely to relieve the stronger. 

In comedy, those lighter emotions which are generally ex- 
cited by ambition, love, and jealousy should predominate. 
Pathos should serve as a background to intensify the humor. 

(2) The plot : this should be perfectly coherent throughout. 

(3) The play : the events should be consecutive. Narrative 
parts should be unimportant in themselves, and serve merely 
as connecting links in the plot. Long speeches should never 
be introduced except when absolutely necessary, and then 
they should be broken by interruptions. When more than 
two actors are on the stage at one time, the colloquy should 
include all so as to avoid awkwardness in any of the actors. 
"Asides," as they are called, should be absolutely avoided, if 
possible. Soliloquies should include the most important or 
the most attractive thoughts in the play. Groupings of char- 
acters should be capable of tableau effects. 

(4) The characters — nuinber : Many speaking characters 
require greater complexity of plot and cumber the movement 
of the action ; few characters require that the incidents should 
be of stronger interest than when there are many. 

Variety : this should be so great as to insure freedom from 
the slightest monotony. 

Development : the time included in the action should never 
be lost sight of, so that perfect consistency of character may 
be preserved. Nature should be followed as closely as possi- 
ble. Slight exaggeration, however, sometimes heightens 
dramatic effects, and is, on that account, admissible. 



THE NOVEL. 22/ 

(3) Lyric Poetry. — Lyric poetry covers a very wide 
field. It was originally such poetry as was designed 
to be set to music. Odes, elegies, songs, ballads, 
sonnets, psalms, dirges, and hymns properly include 
the principal forms. 

In criticism there is very little complication. Be- 
yond the mechanical analysis, the main points to 
consider are whether the leading thought is logic- 
ally followed, and the grouping of subordinate 
thoughts artistic. 

Besides the three principal divisions of poetical 
composition, there is a large class of miscellaneous 
poems that must be noted. They can be grouped 
as romantic, didactic, descriptive, allegorical, and 
satirical. Their criticism must be based entirely 
upon the purpose for which they were written. 

(4) Prose Composihon. — Prose composition is of 
such great variety that only the principal divisions 
need be studied for purposes of criticism. A 
general division is into works in which the imagina- 
tion predominates, and those in which the judgment 
predominates. Of the former, the novel occupies 
the highest place ; of the latter, history and the 
essay. Biography is allied to history. 

(i) THE NOVEL. — The novel, on account of its 
great popularity, and of its being almost universally 
read, occupies a more conspicuous position than any 
other form of prose. As a medium of popular in- 
struction, the novel has been written so as to include 
love, war, history, philosophy, morals, religion, 
politics, and science. 

As to mode of composition, two kinds of novels 



228 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

may be considered — the subjective and objective, 
the former requiring a higher order of intellect than 
the latter. A subjective novel is one in which the 
descriptive power of the writer seems to be limited 
to the development of character. The character 
grows out of his surroundings. An objective novel 
is one in which the descriptive power of the writer 
is confined mostly to the surroundings, and the 
characters form a part of the surroundings, but are 
not developed from them. Samuel Richardson and 
George Eliot were subjective writers ; Fielding and 
Scott, objective. 

In criticising the novel, if subjective, the criticism 
should be based upon the development of character; 
if objective, upon descriptions of character and 
scenery. The subjective writer is sometimes entirely 
deficient in the imagery of description ; the objec- 
tive writer sometimes entirely forgets his characters 
in his descriptions of scenery. 

The novel has some resemblance to the drama, 
but is easier to write because it has much fewer 
limitations. A singular fact is that the dramatic 
faculty seems to be entirely different from that 
which can produce a novel. George Eliot was, in 
some respects, the greatest novelist of her genera- 
tion, and was very ambitious of showing some 
dramatic talent, but it was a talent in which she 
was very deficient. 

Whatever the predominant idea of the novel may 
be, the first requirement before actual composition 
is the construction of a plot. Beyond a logical 
sequence of incidents, and a close adherence to the 



HISTORY. 229 

predominant thought, the writer has no limitations. 
The closer he follows nature the better, provided, 
in doing so, he can hold the attention of his 
readers. The absurd and impossible in all fiction, 
outside of broad humor, can never secure a perma- 
nent footing in literature. A very large class of 
inferior novels has had many thousands of readers, 
it is true, and these novels have exerted somewhat 
of an educational influence, but they have no real 
place in our literature. 

The points of criticism for a novel may be ar- 
ranged as follows : 

I. Verbal Criticism. 

II. Thought Criticism, 
(i) The plot. 

(2) Its logical coherence. 

(3) Number and character of ijicidents : too many incidents 
produce monotony ; too few, absolute dullness. Their charac- 
ter should be such as to hold the attention of the reader, and 
be within the bounds of probability. 

(4) Number of characters : many characters increase the 
difficulties of a logical connection of incidents. 

(5) Unity and individuality of characters : the characters 
should show a consistent development from beginning to end, 
and, if not drawn from actual life, should represent types. 

(6) Descriptions and colloquies should be natural. 

(7) Episodes, if any, should be few in number. 

(8) The predominant thought should never be lost sight of. 

(2) HISTORY. — A history is supposed to be an 
impartial record of past events, — social, religious, 
and political. No one has yet succeeded in writing 
an impartial history, owing to lack of research, to 
imperfect research, to the impossibility of getting 



230 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

the truth, to the natural bias of the author, or to 
several of these causes combined. 

To get the true measure of a historian's worth, 
his bias must first be found. Both Hume and Gib- 
bon had a bias against orthodox Christianity. Be- 
sides this, Hume not only lacked the patience for 
complete research, but also did not have access to 
many valuable papers. Both of these writers, also, 
in order to conform to what was then considered 
the historical style of composition, omitted many 
things that would have interfered with the proper 
dignity of that style. 

Macaulay had a strong political bias as a 
Whig. Besides this, he had other marked preju- 
dices. He had a contempt for George Fox, the 
founder of the Quakers ; hence no allusion against 
that sect or any member of it is perfectly trust- 
worthy. Another defect in accuracy is due to his 
determination to make history as entertaining to 
the average person as is the novel. He deserves 
great credit, however, for being the first to intro- 
duce much valuable material into history. 

Froude's principal bias is that women are natu- 
rally incompetent to govern a nation. Besides this, 
he has strong likes and dislikes. His strong appre- 
ciation of the first half of the reign of Henry VIH 
seems to blind his eyes to the atrocious brutality 
of the last half. Another strong bias is his hatred 
of Catholics, which makes him sometimes give a 
form to facts that distorts them from the truth. 

After this bias is determined, criticism can be 
concentrated upon the history itself, as follows : 



SUGGESTIVENESS OF AN AUTHOR. 23 1 

(i) The grouping of events. 

(2) Their description. 

(3) The conclusions drawn from events. 

(4) Descriptions of character. 

(5) Tracing events from effects to causes. 

(3) THE ESSAY. — The essay is a composition in 
which some one topic, — social, religious, political, 
or literary — is treated with greater or less elabora- 
tion. 

In the essays of Sir Francis Bacon, which were 
the first of any great literary value that were written 
in English, the subject was treated in a general way, 
and without elaboration. Now, the essay is an 
almost exhaustive treatise upon the subject selected. 

The points of criticism in the essay are the fol- 
lowing : 

(i) The object in view. 

(2) Logical connection of statements. 

(3) Correctness and aptness of illustration. 

(4) Appropriateness of the conclusion. 

(5) Siiggestiveness of an Author. — The last, and, 
in some respects, the highest and most satisfactory 
work in criticism, is to determine the suggestive- 
ness of an author. 

Some writers, like Dryden in the drama, Smollett 
in fiction. Pope in poetry, and Macaulay in history, 
are deficient in this. Gray, Wordsworth, and Cole- 
ridge in their poems, and Emerson and Carlyle in 
their essays, are full of suggestions. 

Suggestive writers should receive a somewhat 
different criticism from those who are non-sugges- 
tive, depending largely upon the degree of sugges- 



232 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 

tiveness possessed by them. Gray, especially, has 
other excellences than suggestion, and can be safely 
submitted to the severest criticism ; but Carlyle and 
Emerson have faults which should be overlooked 
because of their admirable, almost wonderful power 
in stimulating thought. 

That author does the most for his reader who 
makes him think most ; hence, the suggestive 
writer, whatever his defects may be, will always 
occupy the most conspicuous and permanent place 
in literature. 



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